Theories of the origin of religion by Durkheim and Freud - Essay Example

?Religion and Theology Module Module ID: The present paper aims to make a comparative analysis of the theories articulated by Emile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud elucidating the origin of religion. The main objective behind making an investigation into these theories includes the influence of the religion on the individual and collective life of the people, and popularity the theoretical frameworks of both these theorists have obtained during the contemporary era. Since faith has always been a subject of grave concern for a large majority of the people belonging to diverse ethno-racial and social backgrounds since ever, the topic maintains great sociological significance in its scope. Introduction: Religion is rightly stated to be an essential part of the public and private life of the individuals belonging to various cultures and civilisations since the known history of the globe (R Lowe, 1963:532-3). It is partly because of man’s developing strong belief in the metaphysical objects and supernatural powers existing in the universe, with which man maintains emotional and sentimental association (C Ember & M Ember, 2007:393). These supernatural powers are considered to be strongly influencing the destiny of the people by dint of their control over the universal phenomena. Not only this that these powers are in a position of providing the humans with emotional and financial support, but also they serve as the forces that play decisive role in protecting them from all internal setbacks and external threats (A Kroeber, 1963:82-3). Additionionally, these forces are thought to be having the power to inflict woes and pains upon the humans; as well as liberating them from these calamities at the moment when the humans seek their support on finding themselves absolutely vulnerable (Ember & Ember, 2007:395). In other terms, supernatural forces have been thought to be maintaining absolute control over the destiny of humans in all respects. Consequently, primitive man had established his belief in these powers in order to escape pains and sufferings of different kinds, and for obtaining all comforts and joys life offered to him, along with attaining pelf, power and possession that could earn dominant place for him over fellow-humans and other creatures. Almost similar views have been articulated by distinguished French sociologist-theorist Emile Durkheim in his Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912). Durkheim’s Perspective: While discussing the origin of religion, Durkheim seeks supports from the relics of ancient era clans observing distinctive spiritual norms and practices. “A religion is”, Durkheim asserts, “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, including set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them” (J Breaux, 2008:1). The theorist is of the opinion that the nature of bonding among the humans in primitive era was limiteed in the sense that every individual was bound to fulfil the needs attributed to him, his family and clan, without seeking help from the other groups outside the tribe altogether. As a result, everyone had to get involved into the hunting and food-gathering activities. Hence, the concept of in-group and out-group used to prevail in such a strong manner that the people did not bother to render any assistance to the members of the external groups (J Macionis, 2008:481). It was partially because of the fear of assault and attack from the external tribes, which created rivalry among the ancient time clans against one another. Such a state of absolute isolation not only kept the primitive era humans away from the fellow-beings, but also developed his strong relationship with their specific clans on the one side, and the supernatural powers on the other. Since supernatural powers could turn out to be supportive one with regards to the accomplishments of the basic human needs and desires (H Ross, 1963:338); such state of isolation existing in the physical and natural environment of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic eras gave birth to man’s reliance on metaphysical objects; subsequently leading to the creation of the institution of religion (Durkheim, 1912:22-3). Since these superhuman forces, in which man has developed his faith to be his saviour, for showering great bounties on man, appeared to be source of satisfaction and protection for him, these objects were taken to be sacred and holy in nature by the humans (Durkheim, 1912:29). Not only this that all the human achievements and fulfilment of wishes were thought to be the outcome of man’s seeking help from these holy forces, but also the same feelings grew into developing an unflinching spiritual association with these objects, which ultimately gave the concept of totemism (Flugel, 2012:9). The idea of soul and body as two separate entities as well as their being sacred and profane respectively had also been popular in ancient times (Swain, 1915:264). The same concept has also been elaborated by Durkheim, where he argues that supernatural forces were associated with the souls of the ancestors of the clans, which had turned into the form of powerful forces after their separation from the profane bodies after death. Since man had developed the spiritual affiliations for the souls of ancestors, the implementation of the same spiritual and moral values in one’s life and society was desired by the humans, which subsequently resulted into the growth and projection of religious values or cult. Totem simply stands for the symbol or sign attributed to the objects thought to be sacred for some particular clan in ancient times, which could be an animal, plant, rain or other natural force (Freud, 1999:1-2). Totemism is, according to Tylor, the system of dividing tribes according to animal/plant clan-names, which is traditionally accepted to be a special form of the cult of ancestors (Flugel, 2012:16). Furthermore, the term totem was not only the symbol of religious identification; on the contrary, it also reflected the socio-cultural and political classifications of the tribes particularly with regards to the Aboriginal Australian tribes (Levi-Strauss, 1963:42). Freud’s Perspective: The concept of totem had been existent in the Melanesia, Polynesian, Malayan and other ancient tribes (Freud, 1999:2). These tribes had developed the belief that their clan had been the favourite of some specific supernatural object i.e. god, and it would protect it from all external threats and disasters. Such unconditional and biased favours were developed on the foundation of the belief that god was actually the soul of his ancestor(s); consequently, he had no concern with other clans co-existing in the same environment. The collective thought had been aimed to be developed to describe the sacred spirit and its characteristics in a symbolic manner, so that all members of the clans as well as their future generations could have recognised the patterns of religious performances and worship had been identified by their predecessors. Consequently, rules were established and laws were devised that were meant for the collective welfare and harmony of the clan on the one side, and making distinction between them on the other. Hence, every clan from the aboriginal Australia had established its unique totem, out of the image of different natural objects (Freud, 1999:19); support of which could be sought at the hour of the need On the one side, Durkheim regards the religion to be the by-product of man’s interaction with his natural, physical and social phenomena, outcome of which has paved the way towards invention of a sacred institution called belief or faith; and on the other side, his contemporary Austrian psychologist-theorist Sigmund Freud declares religion to be mere an illusion (1913:11), which actually serves as the reflection of one’s perils and fears regarding the things he is unable to overcome. In simple terms, man’s fears and sense of being unprotected had given idea regarding the origin of religion in primitive times. The feelings of being weak and insecure haunting the mind of primitive man were actually the outcome of man’s making comparison of his powers and authorities with those enjoyed by the patriarch. As a result, the young individuals used to seeks shelter and relief in violent ways by committing patricide with the aim and ambitions of enjoying themselves with all the bounties associated with the patriarch, particularly the wives in his possession. It was predominantly the case with the African cannibals and Australian aboriginal tribes (Freud, 1999:5-6). Somehow, murder or death of the patriarch could not make the difference, because of the commencement of conflicts and clashes among his heirs, resulting into the state of chaos and disorder that had not been prevalent in patriarch’s presence. Consequently, struggle to obtain power continued to an unending extent. Since the vanquished individuals and groups were deprived of the powers they used to possess and enjoy during the patriarch’s presence, the feelings of repentance and remorse started disturbing and haunting them for raising revolt against the patriarch (Ritzer, 2007). Such bitter sentiments certainly required some compensation in order to obtain mental and emotional relief. In such a perturbed state of affairs, they started returning to some invisible beings, which could turn out to be supportive with regards to assuring pardon to them, and hence getting them released from the state of utter misery and disappointment (Freud, 1999:15). The origin of religion, according to Freud, is based on the principles of anxiety prevailing in the human sub-conscious as well as their ravenousness for capturing the powers enjoyed by the patriarch. It was partially due to existence of the fear of the authoritative patriarchic system as well as greed to achieve the same position, pelf, power and possessions created state of conflict in the ancient clans, which resulted into the murder of the patriarch and beginning of clashes among his heirs. The theorist explores the struggle between Eros and Thanatos, where the former stands for productive and creative elements, while the latter signifies the elements leading to death and destruction respectively (Hogarth, 1962:7). Eros always looks for pleasure-seeking activities, and serves as the driving force to get indulged into revelries and sexual acts etc; while Thanatos intends to suppress such feelings by crushing the desires, or adopting the ways that would lead to man’s ultimate end in the form of death. The conflict between the two causes displeasure and unpleasantness, and pushes man into a state of gloominess. On the one side, man gets involved into pleasure-seeking acts, and commits everything in the pursuit of the same; and on the other side, the feelings of committing wrong invokes sentiments of repentance in his mind. Consequently, he seeks relief in making confession and mending the wrongs by returning to spirituality in order to get rid of the frustration the unjust acts have inflicted upon him. Comparative Analyses of both the Theories: One of the most important differences between the theories presented by the above-described theorists is this that Durkheim views the origin and development of the institution of religion within sociological perspective, where he declares its popularity and projection as the outcome of man’s interaction with other members of society as well as, with the objects and forces of nature (Thompson, 1982:47). On the contrary, being a psychoanalyst, Freud appears to be interpreting all the phenomena man encounters with to be the outcome of his unfulfilled desires prevailing in his sub-conscious. These unfulfilled longings could be satisfied in the state of unconsciousness, predominantly while sleeping through dreams; which could mirror the fears, perils and desires man possesses in his sub-consciousness (Freud, 2004:226). The depiction of overcoming one’s fears or being overcome by the same serves as mere illusion, which forces the humans seek help from the metaphysical objects by abiding by the commands religions has decreed and established for the humans’ collective well-being. Hence, both the theorists appear to be in consensus regarding man’s consulting the natural forces out of the apprehensions and fears prevailing in the sub-conscious, which had given birth to the institution of religion. Another important similarity between the under-investigation theoretical frameworks includes that both of them submit to the universality of the origin of religion on the foundation of peace and welfare of society. Though Freud aims to criticise the same by viewing the aboriginal population raising revolts against patriarch with the aim of capturing more power and authority; however, he never declares religion to be exploiting the humans or destroying their ambitions in the pursuit of spirituality. The humans during the primitive times, according to Durkheim, had great fears of the beasts and natural forces. Consequently they made collective efforts for seeking shelter and protection just for the group they belonged to. These aboriginal Australian clans consisted of small bands only in ancient times (Swain, 1915:263). Although Freud’s perspective also discusses the aboriginal Australian tribes; somehow, it had not defined the collective efforts made by the humans to overcome their fear by seeking the support of religion. Both the theorists have elaborated totem and totemism in their respective perspectives; where Durkheim views the growth and popularity of totemism as the desire of primitive people to distinguish their clan and its traits from other tribal groups. The same has also been elucidated by Freud, where he maintains that there existed the motive of demonstrating some religious performance and social obligations in an individual or collective way, against the favours showered by the superhuman forces on them (Freud, 1999:31-2). The people also intended to pay gratitude to these powers against the blessings these powers had bestowed upon them (Freud, 1999:65). It not only gave birth to the idea of relationship between the worshipper and worshipped, but also introduced the humans to a complete code of life necessary for leading a peaceful life on the principles of justice, equality and compassion for the fellow humans. Consequently, the concept of worshipping in a collective manner, i.e. church, came into existence (Durkheim, 1912:45). The inclusion of various taboos in various cultures reflected the emulation of rules by the ancient people. It was predominantly the case with the institution of marriage, where the individuals were prohibited to enter into marital and sexual relationship with a member of one’s totem; consequently, one could marry outside one’s totem only (Chagnon, 1992:144). The aim of exogamy, or marriage outside one’s clan or tribe, was observed with the aim of developing relationships with other tribes, communities and societies (Levi-Strauss, 1963:35). Violation of endogamy used to be viewed as incest, and hence practicing of which was strictly checked and punished in the aboriginal societies (Freud, 1999:7-8). As a result, both the perspectives are in consensus that the system of totems and taboos manifestly exhibited the presence of religious principles and moral values during ancient times. Both the theorists agreed that religion was mistakenly viewed to be established for the projection of some specific spiritual code, which would bind the humans under the commands of metaphysical powers. On the contrary, the concept of religion flourished, according to Smith (1989), with the aim of the preservation and welfare of all members of society without discrimination (cited by Flugel, 2012:5). In other terms, collective socioeconomic welfare of the humans as well as their moral uplift served as the most dynamic objective of faith since ancient times; though the same could also be stated to be the basic motto of all the existing religious codes. Hence, Durkheim submits to state that if religion has given birth to all that is essential in society, it is because the idea of society is the soul of religion (Bellah, 1973:191). As a result, the true faith always lays stress upon collectivism, peace, solidarity and compassion, the building blocks of a just and peaceful social establishment. Consequently, the existence of political and social institutions in ancient times reflected the peoples’ strong desire for the implementation of universal code of conduct on the principles of justice and equality, where all members of clan, tribe and community would be treated and dealt with in the light of the same rules introduced and applied through the code of ethics actually. These sets of rules had been established by the most primitive clans not only defined and encouraged the performing of some particular acts and activities, but also some of the acts were declared to be prohibited and profane, observing of which would not only invite the wrath of the supernatural powers, but also the resentment and opposition would also be demonstrated by the members of the tribe. Thus, the concepts including social norms, cultural and moral values, totems and taboos, traditions, customs and conventions gradually came into existence in human life, leading to the establishment of human societies, cultures and civilisations eventually (Durkheim, 1912:57). On the contrary, Freud concentrates upon the idea of instincts and drives, and declares that the primitive societies had established the modes of worship called totems, out of the illusion regarding supernatural forces and elements that actually reflected the urge to satisfy their unfulfilled desires by overcoming the powerful objects with the help of supernatural powers (1999:91). Hence, since totem reflects the human desires only, people are not bound to worship in some specific mode. To conclude, though both these theories differ from each other in few respects; and, the propositions made by both the theorists in respect of description of totem and taboo, as well as need of religion certainly vary to a some extent. For instance, Durkheim views religion as the central force that has helped the human society to get united, grow and flourish with the passage of time. Since the idea of religion and soul had played a decisive role in uniting the individuals under one banner, the clans grew into tribe, community and society eventually. Consequently, existence of both religion and society is interdependent (Johnstone, 2007:31). On the contrary, Freud views the origin of totem and taboo just the product of human desires and their repression (1956:67); so violation of religious codes would not invite the wrath of supernatural powers. However, elaboration of aboriginal tribes, totems and taboos, existence of supernatural powers in human mind and origin and growth of worship are in close proximity in both the theories under-examination. Bibliography Bellah, Robert N. 1973. Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Writings. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Breaux, Jarred James. 2008. Durkheim’s Definition of Religion Sacred and Rituals. Spiritual Living Retrieved from http://www.spiritualliving360.com/index.php/durkheims-definition-of-religion-sacred-and-rituals-27969/ Chagnon, Napoleon A. 1992. Yanomamo: Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology Fourth Edition New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Durkheim, Emile. 1912. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: Allen & Unwin Ember, Carl R. & Ember, Melvin. 2007. Cultural Anthropology. New York: Pearson Education Limited Flugel, Dr. Peter. 2012. Totem & Taboo. London: SOAS University of London Freud, Sigmund . 1956 'Beyond the Pleasure Principle.' The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Tr. J. Strachey. London: The Hogarth Press. http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/burt/beyondthepleasureprinciplestandardedition.pdf Freud, Sigmund. 1999. Totem and Taboo. London: Psychology Press. Freud, Sigmund. 2004. Interpretations of Dreams. 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