Religion in China - Research Paper Example

?Running head: RELIGION IN CHINA Religion in China (school) Religion in China Introduction Religion in China is considered one of the more interesting topics coming out of the country. Considering its ancient history, as well as its traditionally restrictive governance, religion seems to be expected as a controlled belief and expression in China. However, religion in China is actually considered pluralist. Meaning, religion in China is considered to be more family-oriented and does not strictly require observance by its members. This paper shall discuss religion in China, considering its application and the various practices seen in the country. Discussion Considering the pluralist nature of religion in China, various authors and scholars define religion in China as cultural practices, not actual “religions” (Taylor, 1982). Nevertheless, in the popular and contemporary context, various religions abound in China, including Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, among others. Buddhism is the most common religion in China and was first seen in the country in the first century (Landaw and Baudian, 2003). The Chinese folk religion known as Shenism is however China’s largest religion as it encompasses various religious traditions (Gargan, 2001). Shenism is a combination of various ethnic religions, including Taoism, the worship of the shens, heroes, ancestors, Chinese mythological figures, and local ethnic deities (Gargan, 2001). In the seventh century, Christianity in China was first seen; it re-emerged in the 16th century with the appearance of the Jesuit missionaries. As the 18th century saw the entry of Europeans into China, Western religions were eventually introduced in the country (Hughes, 2005). More religious freedom was seen in the 1980s and Taoism and Buddhism became an important part of their culture. In the current context, Shenism and Buddhism are considered the most popular religions in China, and smaller percentages of the population are Christians or belong to other religious groupings. In considering the historical beginnings of religion in China, it is important to note that before Chinese civilization was established, the ethnic and folk religious practices were practiced alongside shamans (Walter and Fridman, 2004). With the advent of Chinese civilization, the indigenous and folk religious practices slowly emerged and developed; and this saw the introduction of animism and Taoism into China’s culture (Walter and Fridman, 2003). It is very much supported by the Chinese people, with the firm recognition of the impact of these religions in their lives and their daily activities. The People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949 and it is considered atheist as it sees religion as part of foreign colonialism; it also strictly adheres to the separation of Church and State (Overmyer, 2003). In the mid-1960s, the Cultural Revolution firmly emphasized the elimination of religions; this period saw the destruction of places of worship. In the 1970s, the end of the Cultural Revolution saw improved tolerance in religions and the expression of these religions – with emphasis on the freedom of religions (Hughes, 2005). Their 1978 Constitution also emphasized on this mandate with Article 46 which emphasizes on religious freedom and the non-discrimination of citizens due to religious beliefs (Peale, 2005). There have been various programs to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples in the 1980s and these programs have helped in integrating religion as an important part of the Chinese culture. Buddhists in China are spread out all over the country. The Southern provinces are strong in Shenism and Taoism (Hays, 2010). Chinese folk religions are seen in the central regions and are hardly seen in the northern regions. The northern regions are atheist and agnostics with some Buddhists and Taoists mixed into the population (Hughes, 2005). Sichuan is dominated by Taoists and the eastern regions and coastal provinces are mostly Christians (Little and Eichman, 2000). Tibetan Muslim is seen in Tibet and other western provinces. Islam is seen in the Hui region, and in the Xinjiang province (Hughes, 2005). Among the academics and intellectuals, Confucianism is the popular religious choice. The diversity of religion in China is apparent in the above discussion. All of these beliefs have had a tumultuous history with the government and some are even banned and severely controlled by the authorities. The communist government is repressive of the religions in China; and it actually actively supports atheism (Overmyer, 2003). As a result, religion and the government have not always had a good relationship in China. Only recently has it started to support the practice of religion, mostly that of Buddhism, Taoism and Shenism because the government has recognized the need for the government to develop harmony in society (US Department of State, 2011). There is much doubt on the actual numbers of religious followers in China because official estimates do not present accurate numbers. According to a survey, about 300 million people from China consider themselves religious; and they follow Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, or Islam (China Daily, 2007). These figures represent the diversity of religion in China, even in the face of the communist regime. The mores in China are highly influenced by the Confucian philosophy. Confucius advocates on ethical and moral values and these values are often considered as specific and proper culture in China (Hughes, 2005). Confucianism sets forth that cultures must carry out their main ethnic beliefs based on the reverence for nature and in the ancestors. The veneration of ancestors is an important part of the Chinese culture and religion (Hughes, 2005). Moreover, filial piety and respect for one’s elders is one of the main values of the culture and such respect translates to ancestors who have passed on. Chinese folk religion or Shenism describe the group of ethnic religions which include Chinese mythology and the worship of deities, shens, consciousness, and even dragons and cultural heroes (Newton, 2011). About 400 million adhere to Chinese folk religion; it is one of the major religions of the world. And even if it has been suppressed in the last two centuries, it has reemerged with some support from the government. Religious Confucianism, as was mentioned is one of the more popular religions in China. It is considered the religion of scholars and has become highly influential in its recent applications (Hughes, 2005). There has been much controversy on whether or not Confucianism is a religion or not. It is considered a religion in the sense that it includes the building of temples for ancestral worship of Confucius as well as his disciples. It also includes the knowledge of Tian and of sacrifice. However, in some ways, it has not been considered a religion because it has not established a formal institutional structure and instruction same as other religions (Tang, 1991). In recent years however, the debate seems to have favored the argument that Confucianism is a religion. A large number of intellectuals joining this religion may be one of the reasons for this change. Some intellectuals have even gone further as to consider declaring Confucianism as the official religion of China (Hughes, 2005). This suggestion has been met with much skepticism from the people and limited support from the government. Taoism refers to the various traditions and concepts which were initially seen in 6th century China BCE and followed through to Tao Te Ching, specifically the sage Laozi who became venerated as Daode Tianjun (Hansen, 2007). This religion highlights health, longevity and spontaneity. Nature is revered in this religion. Its activities are different from folk religions as it includes Chinese alchemy, astrology, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and qigong breathing training styles (Hansen, 2007). It was recognized as a religion by the Han Dynasty and as the Northern and Southern dynasties developed Neo-Taoism, some of the practices of Buddhism were incorporated into the religion. This religion gained much influence among the people and saw its best years during the Tang dynasty up to the Northern Song Dynasty (Hansen, 2007). This spread the religion across China. It also gained support of Chinese leaders; however, political conflicts during the Ming dynasty reduced support for the religion. Many leaders later lost interest in Taoism as the Manchu leaders advocated for Tibetan Buddhism. It was banned from 1949 with the rise of Communist China and such ban went on until the Cultural Revolution (Hansen, 2007). In recent years however, this religion has reemerged with many more followers building up its numbers. Another religion which has gained a strong following in China is Buddhism. This religion was first seen in India, introduced by the Han Dynasty (O’Brien, 2011). It gained many followers in China as it was popular among commoners and many emperors from various dynasties. In the 9th century, it became the most popular institution in China as it started to gain influence over Taoism and even the government (O’Brien, 2011). This period also saw the era of the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution which unfortunately repressed the religion. Buddhism survived such repression and even flourished in the years which followed. It was also developed by various dynasties and in the process it became deeply ingrained into the culture and the philosophy of China (O’Brien, 2011). The introduction of this religion in Chinese society identified a period of much interaction with Taoism. Buddhist writings were even translated into the Taoism writings. The Tang era merged Buddhist teachings into the Taoist concepts; these teachings included the use of monasteries, vegetarianism, alcohol prohibition, and the doctrine of emptiness (O’Brien, 2011). Although largely popular, it was not wholly welcomed in China, especially among the gentry. The teachings of Buddhism were viewed as amoral from the point of view of the Confucian followers. While Confucianism supported social order and practical living, the government officials cynically viewed monasticism and wondered how the achievement of personal peace and nirvana benefitted the Chinese dynasty (O’Brien, 2011). An understanding between these two religions was however eventually achieved after many years of co-existence. As communist China rose in 1949, Buddhism, like Confucianism was also banned. This ban was seen until the 1980s; in recent times, the religion slowly gained popularity. Their numbers also quickly rose with official numbers estimating about 100 million Buddhists in China (O’Brien, 2011). This Buddhism is now considered a combination of the Pure Land and Chan school teachings. It is also a religion fast gaining popularity among the urban professionals. It has also gained support from the government, as seen in the building of various Buddhist monasteries and temples in the country. Christianity is also one of the religions apparent in China. Christianity in China includes the following religions: Protestantism, Catholicism, and Orthodox Christianity (Bays, 1999). Since the reduction of religious restrictions in China, Christianity gradually gained a strong foothold in the country. Before that, the religion attempted to influence the Chinese people as early as in the 7th century AD; these Christian influences went through cycles of disappearance and reemergence over hundreds of years (Bays, 1999). The Persian missionary Alopen gained entry into China during the Tang dynasty and various missionaries soon followed. This flow of missionaries into China was stopped under the Tang dynasty, the dynasty which expelled Christianity, as well as Buddhism and Zoroastrianism (Bays, 1999). Christianity re-emerged in the 13th century under the Yuan dynasty as the Mongols allowed missionaries back into the country. However, these Christians were again forced out of China when the Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty (Bays, 1999). As the Ming dynasty was nearing its end, Jesuits gained foothold in China. This foothold was further strengthened under the Qing dynasty. More missionaries entered China during this period. Russian orthodoxy was seen in the early 1700s and Protestants started entering China in the early 1800s (Bays, 1999). Christian missionaries carried out their activities in China in the 19th and the 20th centuries. The influence of Christianity on the Chinese people was seen in the Taiping Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion. As Christians built hospitals and schools in China, they also allowed females to be trained as nurses (Bays, 1999). The Christian influence gained much strength with their establishment of schools, their introduction of modern methods of medicine, as well as their prevention of the unjust treatment of servants. China and Christianity has not had a harmonious relationship with each other (Bays, 1999). The government actually underestimates the actual population of Christians in China, their actual numbers range in the 40 to 54 million, but government estimates their numbers to be at 4 to 10 million only (Wu, 2009). Islam is also one of the religions which has gained foothold in China (Israelli, 2002). This religion entered China due to Muslims trading with the Chinese people during the Song Dynasty. Muslim migrants registered by the thousands during the Yuan Dynasty with their relocation into China, initially to help administer the country (Israelli, 2002). These Muslims led the construction of a Yuan capital in Beijing. Their growth continued under the Ming Dynasty and they even impacted on government processes in China. Muslims were gradually assimilated into the Chinese culture as they started speaking the Chinese language and using Chinese names (Israelli, 2002). This was known as one of the best times for Islam in China. The onset of the Qing Dynasty however marked a tumultuous time for Islam in China as Muslim revolts were seen between various sects and against government repression (Israelli, 2002). The Manchu government also ordered the killing of millions of Muslims. More bloody exchanges were seen between the Chinese officials in power and the Muslims in China. These violent activities only ceased with the fall of the Qing dynasty when Sun Yat Sen declared China as lands equally host to the Hans, the Manchus, the Mongols, the Tibetans, and the Huis (Israelli, 2002). Some provinces were also given to the Muslim governors for appropriate control. Islam soon gained acceptance in the country. Now, the religion is slowly being revived in China and this re-emergence is attributed to the nationwide organized activities of Muslims. Judaism in China was first seen during the Tang Dynasty with some Jews settling in the country. These Jews arrived in the 20th century, most prominently in Hong Kong and Harbin as these cities experienced some economic growth (Kupfer, 2008). Some followers grew from these original settlers. Other religions were also seen in the country, including Hinduism, Manichaeism, and Zoroastrianism. These are however minor religions in the country. Nevertheless, they all represent the diversity of religions in China. Conclusion The discussion above demonstrates the pluralist nature of religion in China. It is a country largely of the Taoist and ethnic religion persuasion with most of its citizens highly influenced by their ethnic and original beliefs. Buddhism and Confucianism are however strong and influential religions in the country. Christianity and Islam have also gained strong footholds in China. Other religions like Judaism and Zoroastrianism are minor religions in China. These religions represent a diverse and rich mixture of religions in the country. These religions have had a rich and dynamic history in the country as they have been subjected to the various political decisions of ruling dynasties and officials in the country. In recent years, these religions have been flourishing in the country as the government has gradually implemented legal provisions respecting the existence and the practice of these religions. In effect, such protection and support has given these religions free reign and application in one of the largest countries in the world. Works Cited Bays, D. (1999). Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. California: Stanford University Press. China Daily (2007). Religious Believers Thrice The Official Estimate Poll. Retrieved 15 July 2011 from http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200702/07/eng20070207_348105.html Gargan, E. (2001). Return to folk religions brings about renewal in rural China. Philadelphia Inquirer. 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