Modernization and Early Dependency Theory - Assignment Example

Theory Q1. How have both early modernization theory and early dependency theory been modified? Why were those modifications needed? Early dependency theory and early modernization theory both have been modified with time simply because the data and the ideas which formed the basis of these theories have changed. For example, the modernization theory was thought to be dead in the early 80s when neo-Marxist and the dependency theory took a stronghold with regard to the development of the world. However, the changes which came to the world with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the emergence of the CAR states as well as the rising importance of natural resources such as oil and gas have all played roles in brining changes to the idea of global development (Roxborough, 1988). Modernization theory needed change since the liberal or neoliberal approach to economic development for lesser developed countries was not successful in many cases. Nations which served as examples of the failure of this developmental approach served as reminders as to why the theory needed to be changed and altered to fit the modern viewpoint of the world. On the other hand, the idea that smaller, weaker countries depend on developed countries within the region to provide them economic stability was weakened by examples that defied the approach given by the theory. In essence, as described by Roxborough (1988), “Modernization, dependency, world-systems theory, and what are sometimes referred to as “modes of production” approaches do not represent separate and competing bodies of thought (Roxborough, 1988, Pg. 753)”. This is perhaps the best explanation of how the theories have changed since the overlap which is created between them has made them complementary theories. Q2. Discuss the differences between electoral democracy, liberal democracy, and substantive democracy. Which definition seems most useful to you? An electoral democracy comes into being where the government is formed through a popular vote by the people who have the right to vote for the government. Of course, such a democracy can be a sham democracy since the elections or the electoral process can be rigged or the existence of only one party or ruling family would defeat the purpose of having an electoral democracy. The economic system in an electoral democracy can be anything from a capitalist system to a communist approach. A better form of democracy would perhaps be experienced in a liberal democracy which has both an elected government and the guarantee of civil liberties through a constitution or the courts which uphold the liberties of the people (Dahl et. al., 2003). A liberal democracy may also come with a capitalist agenda which promotes the idea of free trade and less government interference in business. However, this does not stop the government from creating regulations which are supposed to safeguard and protect the people from exploitation coming from the businesses and corporations. This brings us to a substantive democracy in which the democracy is fully functioning and the wishes of the people are carried out in substance (Dahl et. al., 2003). Of the definitions of various types of democracies, substantive democracy seems most useful since it appears to cover most of the bases when it comes to having a democratic system. Q3. Discuss the various types of relationships that exist between church and state under the world’s major religions. The best manner to examine the relationship between church and state is to look at some of the examples of where the religions are in majority and then see how they relate to the state. For Catholicism, the first example which comes to mind is Italy which is a substantive democracy and Catholicism functions as one of the pressure groups that can set an agenda for social reform and social development without having a direct effect on the government. Similarly, Protestantism in America can allow people to express their sentiments or ideology with votes and thus bring into power those candidates which support or oppose things such as abortion rights or the death penalty (Woodhead, 2001). When it comes to Islam, nations such as Pakistan and Saudi Arabia declare Islam to be the state religion and this makes the laws of the country as well as the politics severely Islamized. For a country like Pakistan or Saudi Arabia, it means that Sharia Law is more important that secular or civil codes of law and the domination of Islam over every sphere of life becomes quite evident in those countries. However, the situation becomes slightly different when we consider India since despite being a predominantly Hindu country; the laws remain secular and the system of government a democracy. Perhaps that is affected by the large number of minorities living in India but in essence; Hinduism seems to have more of an impact on the culture of the country rather than the nature of the state when compared to nations such as Pakistan or Saudi Arabia (Woodhead, 2001). Overall, it seems that despite the idea of the separation of church and state, for many nations of the world the church is not only connected with the state, at times it can also be a part of the state structure. Q4. Discuss how a country’s transition to democracy might increase ethnic tensions in some cases and decrease it in others? Essentially, whenever democracy brings about economic development, social uplift, equality between individuals and justice to a group of people, ethnic tensions and even long standing feuds between rival groups can be reduced or even eliminated. However, when democracy brings about tyranny or the rule of the largest minority, ethnic tensions or problems due to group affiliations may increase. In fact, such situations can also create a backlash against democracy which could be seen as a system that promotes the rule of one group over the interests of all others. Chua (2002) discusses how the misapplication of democracy has created a volatile situation in several regions of the world where democracy and the allied idea of a capitalist approach has caused ethnic hatred rather than ethnic harmony. An accumulation of wealth by any minority in power leads to a natural conflict which can soon turn into a bout of ethnic cleansing and this has happened in the past in the case of Indonesia, Russia, Bolivia and several countries within Africa and the Middle East. The case of Indonesia shows how democracy can lead to ethnic tensions as the market liberalization forces favored the Chinese who accumulated wealth and that resulted in a wave of anti-Chinese feelings and violence against them across the nation. Q5. Describe the advantages and limitations of spontaneous housing. In what ways are sites-and-services programs an improvement over spontaneous housing? Are there disadvantages to sites-and-services programs? The primary advantage to spontaneous living arrangements is that they are created by the people at a location selected by the people without any concern or expense undertaken by the government. However, the lack of planning, the absence of basic services as well as the location itself can be things which make the government concerned over unplanned spontaneous housing. Crowded living arrangements where location and space is at a premium may neglect basic services and even the fundamental requirements of clean sustaining living environments that could make such areas the breeding ground of disease, crime and social inequality (Rondinelli, 1990). In this manner, site and services programs are a significant improvement over unplanned spontaneous living arrangements simply because the government is able to create some plans as to how the housing arrangements will develop with time. Of course, people may choose not to engage or live on those sites while the services offered to them could be overloaded by the number of people who need to use such services but they still represent an improvement over spontaneous living arrangements where life would be considerably harsher. Undoubtedly, sites and services programs could also come with their disadvantages since they can be politically considered to be little more than prison camps for certain income groups but that danger has to be balanced with proper services and arrangements which show that the government has made an investment in the living arrangements and is concerned about giving the essential services that are needed by the people (Rondinelli, 1990). Q6. What are the major arguments presented in support of the neoclassical development model? Ghatak (2003) presents an excellent picture of the neoclassical development model starting from the early 1960s. The arguments presented to support the model are based on mathematical equations to define the relationships between labor, capital, economic output and financial investments. Since the model is backed by historical data, the first argument which supports the model is that in the past, it has been accurately used to predict the development paths taken by various nation states. The model also takes into account other economic realities such as countries using their resources efficiently and that both labor and capital investment follow the law of diminishing returns. Countries such as China and India that have made tremendous progress in the past few years can be used as excellent arguments to support the neoclassical viewpoint on development. However, there are also stark examples of situations where the model breaks down completely since, “It is now well acknowledged that one of the major problems in the use of the neoclassical growth theories is that it does not provide a satisfactory explanation of changes in technology (Ghatak, 2003. Pg. 56)”. In essence, the model can be used as a historical reference point and as a means of explaining other models developed later on in time rather than as a useful model on its own. However, the examples and the data which supports the model remain quite valid since there are some aspects of growth and the development of nations which can be explained quite beautifully with the neoclassical theory. Works Cited Chua, A. 2002, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability, Doubleday. Dahl, R. et. al. 2003, The Democracy Sourcebook, The MIT Press. Ghatak, S. 2003, Introduction to Development Economics, Routledge. Rondinelli, D. 1990, ‘Housing the Urban Poor in Developing Countries: The Magnitude of Housing Deficiencies and the Failure of Conventional Strategies Are World-Wide Problems’, American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 153-166. Roxborough, I. 1988, ‘Modernization Theory Revisited’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 753-761. Woodhead, L. 2001, Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations, Routledge. Read More