Early teen pregnancy - Research Paper Example

Early teen pregnancy Relying on data from the National Survey of Family Growth (NFSG) and the National Vital Statistics System (NVSS), Cox et al. (2014) assembled a report for the Center for Disease Control (CDC) stipulating the impact of early teen pregnancies on the teenage mothers. Data from the NFSG highlighted teens’ use of contraceptives, sexual experiences and their access to information pertaining to the prevention of pregnancies. Conversely, findings from the NVSS detailed the prevalence of early teen pregnancies in the US. Cox et al. presumed that teens aged 15-17 years (early teens) were more likely to suffer from adverse outcomes unlike teens aged 17-19 years (late teens). Discussed in this essay includes a review of statistics relating to early teen pregnancies, factors contributing to early teen pregnancy and a critical analysis of psychological developmental theories with regard to teen sexuality. In addition, the essay explores programs that are currently running, which aim to minimize the prevalence of early teen pregnancies. Statistics on early teen pregnancy An appraisal of data from NVSS showed that early teens account for approximately 25 % of teenage pregnancies. However, it is of significance to note that the prevalence of teenage pregnancies continues to decline, whereby between 1991 and 2012, birth rate per 1,000 teens decreased from 17.9 to 5.4 (teens aged 15years), 15 to 12.9 (teens aged 16years), and 60.6 to 23.7 (teens aged 17 years) (Cox et al., 2014). A racial pattern appeared from the data showing that early teen pregnancy was higher among the Hispanic population (25.5), followed by African Americans (21.9), then Native Americans (17.0), then Caucasians (8.4), and finally Asians/Pacific islanders (4.1) in 2012. In addition, data from NFGS revealed that 91% of female early teens received formal education encompassing birth control methods and on abstinence; however, 24% refrained from discussing either topics with their parents. Even worse, 83% of sexually active female teens aged 15-17 years received no formal sex education prior to their first sexual encounter. Usage of contraceptive indicated 58% used clinical birth control methods in the last one year, 92% remembered to use contraceptives during their last sexual encounter before the survey, and 1% used reversible contraceptive methods. Factors contributing to early teen pregnancy Different researchers attribute teenage pregnancy to a multitude of factors, which range from genetic to socio-cultural factors. As evidenced by the research, socio-economic status, sex education, family dynamics and ethnicity influence the prevalence of teenage pregnancies. In their study, Huang et al. (2013) studied 180 adolescent mothers of African American or Hispanic descent from an urban area situated in Northeast US. They found that prevalence of teenage pregnancies was higher among Hispanics and Blacks compared to the Whites, which predisposed them to higher hardships such as economic hardships, inability to complete school and depression. In addition, Whalen and Loper (2014) examined the correlation between teenage pregnancy and the incarceration of a household member. Their findings indicated that imprisonment of a household member was prevalent among Hispanic households whereby, 32.3 % of the Hispanic female adolescents witnessed the incarceration of a household member compared to the 12.9% who had not. The percentage was also high among African Americans whereby, 36.2% of Black female adolescents witnessed incarceration of a household member compared to the 26.5% who did not (Whalen & Loper, 2014). In addition, incarceration was higher in households, which qualified for federal financial assistance. These families were highly dysfunctional characterized by frequent family conflicts and limited interactions between adolescents and their parents. Adolescence remains a critical stage of development whereby, physiological, psychological, cognitive and social changes occur concurrently, which might prove difficult for an adolescent to handle. Among these changes includes the development of an adolescent’s sexual identity. Stanley G. Hall described adolescence as a period of “storm and stress” characterized by mood swings and an inclination to engage in risky behaviors such as indiscriminate, unprotected sexual activities. According to Hall, mood fluctuations were directly proportional to adverse, stressful events; for example, low popularity with peers, poor academic achievement and parental divorce. In addition, he presumed that they resulted from physiological processes such as hormonal changes that were predominant during adolescence. Findings from current research refute Hall’s presumptions positing that hormonal changes played an insignificant role in causing mood swings in adolescence. Instead, they cited the development sophisticated cognitive abilities and social-cultural factors; for example, parenting styles and peer presssure as the major contributors of an adolescent’s development of a self-identity (Karpov, 2005 p. 219-221). Poor parenting styles also contribute to the high prevalence of teenage pregnancies. Absentee, uninvolved and permissive parents refrain from cautioning their children about the consequences of indiscriminate, unprotected sex. As such, adolescents lack access to vital information pertaining to their sexuality. Throughout childhood, parents remain the key agent of socialization imparting societal expectations and cultural traditions, beliefs and values on their children. Pre-adolescent children adhere to their parent’s teachings, as they lack the cognitive ability to question their parents or decipher latent meaning. However, adolescents are very inquisitive questioning their parents’ input especially if the information creates a state of incongruence within them. In addition, peer interactions enlighten adolescents on their sexuality contributing to the development of their sexual identity. Adolescents are highly impressionable beings, keen on emulating actions displayed by their role models, and indiscriminately following directives given by their peers, as they fear rejection. Finally, the media also plays a vital role in predisposing adolescents to engage in sexual experiences before they are emotionally, financially or physiologically ready. Entertainment shows and advertisements broadcasted through different media outlets are heavily laden with sexual undertones, which promote a sexual culture within the society. In addition, unfiltered information on the internet also contributes to a highly sexual culture. Adolescents with access to these shows, advertisements and the internet become intrigued by what they see and hear which fuels their lust for experimentation. Parental supervision through blocking specific sites and television stations only goes so far to help prevent adolescents’ access to sexually laden content broadcasted through the media. Through peer interactions in schools and during recreational activities, adolescents have unfiltered access to such information. Analysis of developmental theories pertaining to early teen pregnancy Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages of development outlined five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genitals), which unfold sequentially from birth to adolescence. According to him, development was centered on erogenous zones whereby, the resolution of specific conflicts resulted in successful development. The irresolution of the stage-specific conflict led to fixation on the specific stage, deterring successful development (Buskit, 1990). Of significance to adolescence is the genitals phase, which Freud regarded as the final stage of development, a supposition later refuted by other developmental theorists who asserted that development occurred throughout an individual’s lifespan. During the genitals stage, Freud inferred that sexual interests reemerged, as the adolescent learnt how to establish mature and intimate sexual relationships. Heightened sexual interests fuel interactions between adolescents and their peers. A major part of an adolescent’s identity is their sexuality (Karpov, 2005). Erik Erikson negated Freud’s presumption that development stopped at adolescence by positing that it proceeded throughout the lifespan. He advanced the psychosocial stages of development theory whereby, he inferred that there were eight stages of development. Just like Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory encompassed the resolution of stage-specific tasks, which led to the development of a specific virtue. Proceeding to the next stage of development mandated the successful resolution of stage-specific task. Identity vs. Role confusion, the fifth stage in Erikson’s theory was parallel to Freud’s genitals stage. Erikson viewed adolescence as a time for breaking dependent ties by establishing one’s unique identity. The virtue acquired during this stage is fidelity, which entailed an individual’s ability to remain faithful in all their social interactions. Erikson inferred that an adolescent also identifies their role within the wider context of the society (Lefton, 2000). Building on Erikson’s work was developmental psychologist James E. Marcia who advanced four identity statuses based on his analysis of an individual’s extent of exploration and commitment within different contexts; they included identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement (Marcia, 1966). According to Marcia, identity diffusion encompassed an adolescent’s inability to commit or explore any alternatives whereas, identity foreclosure encompassed an adolescent’s strong commitment towards one thing barring them from exploring other alternatives. Conversely, moratorium encompassed an adolescent’s zeal to explore different alternatives hindering their ability to commit to something specific. Finally, identity achievement encompassed an adolescent’s ability to explore different alternatives and make a rational decision before committing to any alternative (Marcia, 1966). Adolescents explore their sexual identity through the following stages. For example, some adolescents refrain from exploring other sexual orientations choosing to remain heterosexual or homosexual whereas, others explore both sexual orientations before committing to a single one developing a bi-sexual orientation. Jean Piaget advanced his cognitive development theory in an attempt to describe the systematic unfolding of the thinking processes from infancy to adolescence. Through his contributions, Piaget highlighted cognition’s adaptive function and analogized the mind’s development. He theorized that there were four stages of cognitive development, which included sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete and formal operational stages. According to him, human intellect resulted from continuous organization and adaptation (encompasses accommodation and assimilation). Assimilation entails merging new information with pre-existing information whereas accommodation entails altering pre-existing information with incoming unfamiliar information. Piaget advanced that adolescents developed formal operational thinking, which predisposed them to reason in a logical, rational manner (Morris, 1990). Supporting Piaget’s suppositions were researchers Larson & Richards (1994) who inferred that adolescents’ advanced cognitive abilities enable them to detect latent information within different contexts resulting in frequent re-evaluation of the various facets of their lives (Karpov, 2005 p.223). Concurring with the above presumption, Harter (1999) proposed that adolescents experience discrepancies with regard to their ideal self and their current perception of self (Karpov, 2005 p.223). Consequentially, advanced cognitive abilities account for heightened stress levels and rampant mood fluctuations in adolescence, which in- turn affects an adolescent’s interactions with their parents. Despite the disparities in their perspectives, all developmental theorists viewed adolescence as a period where sexual interest peaks. In addition, they were not ignorant of the role played by peers in influencing adolescents’ conceptualization of sex. Being an explorative phase adolescents experiment while in possession of inadequate information pertaining to sex. For example, they might be ignorant of the fact that having unprotected sex or engaging in indiscriminate sexual encounters pose health risks such as sexually transmitted infections or unwanted pregnancies. In the event that they become pregnant, young, female adolescents lack access to adequate health care services, which are tailored to help them explore all their options. In addition, their preoccupation with what others’ will think about their status impairs their rationality. As a result, they contemplate, and others proceed to procure back alley abortions likely to result in health complications and might prove fatal. Conversely, for those who opt not to terminate the pregnancy, experience disruptions in their daily lives. For most early teenage mothers, balancing between parenting, meeting financial requirements and completion of education becomes impossible. Worsening the situation is the socio-economic status of the early teen mother. Those from low-income backgrounds bear the financial burden of raising their newborn on their own, as their parents are unable to take on more financial responsibilities. The prevalence of school dropouts among early teen mothers from poor backgrounds is extremely high. Programs mitigating the problem of early teen pregnancy Mitigating the problem of teenage pregnancy requires the implementation of strategies aimed at sensitizing teenagers and their parents. Making sex education compulsory in all high schools creates awareness by ridding teenagers of their ignorance regarding sex. Sex educators must emphasize on abstinence; however, they should also provide adequate information pertaining to contraceptives. The latter will help reduce the number of unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases when used in the right manner. Conversely, creation of evidence-based programs provided for the parents will equip them with knowledge and skills needed to have conversations about sexuality with their children. In addition, such programs reiterate the importance of parents paying attention to the behaviors of their teenagers, which helps foresee problems before they occur (Whalen & Loper, 2014). According to Solomon-Fears (2013), the government plays a pivotal role in helping curb teen pregnancy through the provision of funding for programs customized to sensitize teenagers about abstinence and contraceptives. Over the years, different Acts legislated by the US Congress provided funding to different federal programs targeting teenagers’ health education. These included: 1981: Public Health Service Act created the Adolescent Family Life (AFL) program aimed at providing support to pregnant teens, teenage mothers and fathers, and their parents. The program offered health, social and education services whereby, abstinence education featured across all the services offered by AFL. 1996: Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act provided funding for abstinence-only education targeting teenagers. 2010: Consolidated Appropriations Act provided funding for the Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP) program. Private entities received funding to design programs targeting pregnancy prevention among teenage girls. 2012: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act refined PREP programs by providing funding for sex education. Unlike the former PREP programs, the new ones also provided teenagers with information on contraceptives. Conclusion In conclusion, teenage pregnancy is an issue affecting both the US government and its citizens. Therefore, mitigating the problem requires cooperation between all parties. Sex education pertaining to abstinence and the use of contraceptives should begin at home whereby; parents should not simply relegate the duty to teachers in schools. In addition, establishing functional relationships within the family is central to the prevention of teenage pregnancies because parents play a pivotal role in molding their children’s perspectives on sexuality. The use of evidence-based programs offered on a community level provides a way for the entire community to rally behind the prevention of teenage pregnancies. In uniting to reduce teenage pregnancies, depression, financial hardships, disrupted learning and the inability to complete one’s education (problems common to adolescent mothers) will become a prehistoric problem. References Buskit, W. (1990) Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers. USA: Foreman and Co. Cox, S., Pazol, K., Warne, L., Romero, L., Spitz, A., Gavin, L., & Barfield, W. (2014). Vital Signs: Births to Teens Aged 15–17 Years — United States, 1991–2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63(14), 312-318. Huang, C. Y., Costeines, J., Kaufman, J. S., & Ayala, C. (2013). Parenting Stress, Social Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child Development. New York: Springer Science+ Business Media. Karpov, V. Y., (2005), The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development (pp 218-230). New York: Cambridge University Press. Lefton, L A. (2000) Psychology. Allyn & Bacon. Marcia, J. E., (1966), Development and validation of ego identity status, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, pp. 551-558 Morris, C G. Psychology: An Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990. Phinney, J. S. (1993). A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence. In M. E. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 61-79). New York: State University of New York Press. Solomon-Fears, C. (2013). Teenage Pregnancy Prevention: Statistics and Programs. Washington: Congressional Research Service. Whalen, M. L., & Loper, A. B. (2014). Teenage Pregnancy in Adolescents with an Incarcerated Household Member. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 36(3), 346-361. Read More