Evaluating the Notion of Schizophrenia - Research Paper Example

? Schizophrenia Part A: Ethnography of archival research work In simple terms, Schizophrenia can be explained as the type of mental disorder, which restricts organized thoughts and communication capabilities of people, mostly at their young adulthood and also causes hallucinations, delusions and paranoia within the individual. At often instances, physicists have argued that schizophrenia relates with ethnographic factors. This particular notion will be examined in the following discussion in this section, where an ethnographic study will be performed with reference to archival works on schizophrenia (Kyziridis, 2005, pp. 42-46). In the archival work by Katallia (2011), it has been comprehended that certain demographic evidences add up to reflect the ethnographic influences of schizophrenia. According to the review of NIMH, it has been depicted that an individual, who mainly inherits Val Coding is likely to have a higher risk related to ailment as, Val Coding signifies the brain chemical that generally breaks down the ‘dopamine’ in human brains, which is responsible for the cognitive abilities of a person (Katallia, 2011). In a survey report by Fellous & Suri (2002, pp 2), a firm belief of the concerned researchers was noted, postulating that people suffering from schizophrenia undergoes a ‘Dopamine’ phase, which is again influenced by the surroundings as well as be the genetic constructs of the parents. Dopamine is the ailment that affects a normative process of the brain emphasizing the sensitive response and control crusade of the individual along with his/her ability to be familiar with pain and pleasure (Fellous & Suri, 2002, pp 2). In another archival work, Lopez, Hipke, Polo, Jenkins, Karno, Vaughn & Snyder (2004, pp. 429) argued that it is owing to the influences caused by genetic conducts and social environment that few family trees decipher higher propensity of schizophrenia in selected regions, as compared to other groups. Emphasizing the heterogeneity of occurrences of schizophrenia, the archival work by Kirkbride, Fearon, Morgan, Dazzan, Morgan, Tarrant, Lloyd, Holloway, Hutchinson, Leff, Mallett, Harrison, Murray & Jones (2006, pp. 255-257) also discussed the panoramic view concerning the influence of ethnicity on the occurrences of schizophrenia. As per the obtained results, schizophrenic symptoms were observed to be more among male samples as compared to females. Age-distribution was also identified as a major influencing factor, wherein a larger number of aged male members were witnessed to suffer from schizophrenic symptoms. Additionally, rates of schizophrenia were also observed to be higher among Blacks and other minority groups as compared to majority ethnic communities (Kirkbride, Fearon, Morgan, Dazzan, Morgan, Tarrant, Lloyd, Holloway, Hutchinson, Leff, Mallett, Harrison, Murray & Jones, 2006, pp. 255-257). Accordingly, when reporting on the incidences of schizophrenia among the African-Caribbean population residing in England, Fearon, Kirkbride, Morgan, Dazzan, Morgan, Lloyd, Hutchinson, Tarrant, Fung, Holloway, Mallett, Harrison, Leff, Jones & Murray (2006, pp. 1546-1548) revealed that minority groups in England, including Black Africans and African Caribbeans are at higher risk of psychosis symptoms like schizophrenia. The results in Jenkins & Schumacher (1999, pp. 33-36) also advocated the cultural and ecological effects on schizophrenia within the population of Latinos. It was further stated by Bhurge (2005) that schizophrenia is more common within male populaces as compared to females, which is again augmented with the influences of factors like ethnicity, culture and social environment. Bhurge (2005) also revealed many cultural impacts over schizophrenia. In accordance with this cross-cultural research, it was analyzed that the psychiatrists from differentiated cross-cultures focused on the similarities in the course of the ailment rather than its differences. Correspondingly, the International Pilot Study and outcome of several mental syndrome studies stated that ‘catatonia’, which is a form of Schizophrenia, has the propensity to remain stable in a lethargic state for an extended period has shown a remarkable rise of 10% within the developing countries as compared to the developed countries (Bhurge, 2005). Additionally, ‘Hebephrenia’, representing another form of Schizophrenia, was recorded as an increased rate of 13% within the developed countries than a mere 4% rise in developing countries (Bhurge, 2005). From a critical point of view, there are many ethnography factors that can be related as a cause or stimulator of schizophrenia incidences. Few of these factors include genetic constructs of the parents, effectiveness of medical and social communities to identify and treat schizophrenic symptoms among individuals and even the level of awareness persisting in the community regarding such mental health issues. At the onset, the influence of limited or no knowledge regarding the illness can be assessed as a major reason for the rising number of schizophrenia incidences in particular regions. In a study conducted on the Moroccan families by Kadri, Manoudi, Berrada & Moussaoui, (2004), it was comprehended that Schizophrenia patients of such families suffer from stigma at much rapid instances. The study revealed that among the 100 Moroccan families studied when conducting the research, family members were observed to possess no knowledge of the illness. The results revealed 23% cases of schizophrenia to be caused due to genetic constructs or heredity while other cases recorded drug abuse, organic disturbance and stressful life events as the causes of schizophrenic incidents (Kadri, Manoudi, Berrada & Moussaoui, 2004). Hence, it can be inferred that societies having families with schizophrenic symptoms are likely to channelize the same problem to their siblings in terms of heredity; while societies recording greater rates of drug abuse and stressful life styles may also facilitate a higher rate of schizophrenic incidents. Awareness regarding this particular illness can also be examined in respect of political structures in a particular region. Emphasizing this particular notion, Kadri, Manoudi, Berrada & Moussaoui, (2004) comprehended that decision-makers or the political parties did not measure illness as a priority for the establishment of mental wellbeing plan in Morocco, based on the grounds that mental illness does not come under the purview of government. In concern with communal level, the study states that stigma adversely affects the will of communal members to endure help for Schizophrenia patients. It is worth mentioning in this context that attitude plays as a vital role in procuring adverse effects on patients suffering from Schizophrenia, which is further influenced by the steps taken by government and various social communities along with the awareness level of the community members regarding the issue (Kadri, Manoudi, Berrada & Moussaoui, 2004). Again, referring to the study of Kapur (1992, pp. 4), based on the investigation concerning the western families, it can be inferred that certain pathological factors, which were directly related to the onset as well as chronicity of the disease schizophrenia, include the skewed relationship between the parents relate with their Schizophrenia children. Under such circumstances, societies fostering high degree of supernatural beliefs, such as identified in the study of McCabe & Priebe (2004, pp. 26-27), record high propensity of schizophrenia incidents as compared to other regions. As was revealed from the study, there are primitively two reasons as to why schizophrenia occurrences are high at particular regions among a particular ethnic group, in comparison to others, viz. biological interferences and supernatural causes. Accordingly, two major ethnic groups were examined in this archival research, where the White ethnic group depicted biological interferences as a major cause of the recorded schizophrenia cases while the non-White groups (including African-Caribbeans and Bangladeshis) recorded supernatural causes as a prime reason for such occurrences (McCabe & Priebe, 2004, pp. 26-27). Veling (2008) further examined the relation between ethnicity and the occurrences of schizophrenia studying minorities in Netherlands including the immigrants from Surinam and Morocco, along with the residents from the Netherlands Antilles group. As per the obtained results, these groups have recorded an increased number of schizophrenia occurrences as compared to the authentic ethnic Dutch groups. As a reason, social discrimination, long-term distance from family, acculturation strategies and other factors that contribute to life stress have been credited for such high rate occurrences of schizophrenia. According to Veling (2008, pp. 140-146), the social and cultural as well as political and economic conditions, where immigrants live, are the main stimulators of the rising numbers of schizophrenia among the minority ethnic groups in Netherlands (refer to figure 1 in appendix). To confirm this particular apprehension, the study conducted by Boydell, Os, McKenzie, Allardyce, Goel, McCreadie & Murray (2001, pp. 2-3) can be taken into account. As was revealed in this study, schizophrenia incidents are recorded at a higher propensity among non-white ethnic groups when the proportion of these populaces is recorded to be less or small. Apparently, this particular finding proves that social environment play a major role in confirming the rate of schizophrenia among ethnic groups. As was mentioned above, apart from social structures, initiatives taken by governmental bodies or medical communities also play a major role in determining the propensity of schizophrenia within an ethnic group. It is in this context that the research study of Myers (2010) intended to signify about differentiated initiatives for the recovery of the patients suffering from schizophrenia. In North-America, the people do not usually associate schizophrenia with the recovery, as there is lack of bio-medical cure related to the illness in this particular region. According to Kraepelin (1919), schizophrenia has been designated as ‘dementia praecox’, which signifies about the chronic deterioration of the mental health or stability of the patient suffering from the ailment. With regard to the chronic deterioration, it contributes to emotive dullness, loss of capacity for self-governing action and fiasco of the mental activities. Moreover, people suffering from the ailment experience hallucinations, strange pomposity and the failure of interpretation. The research study further revealed that the recovery movement being applied by the North-America with a view to reform the U.S mental wellbeing system has contributed significantly in the diminishing of schizophrenia occurrences in the nation (Myers, 2010, pp 2). This again signifies that social institutions have a major role to play when determining the recovery pace and occurrence frequency of schizophrenia cases. Part B: A Detailed History of Schizophrenia and Developments in Its Treatment Process Schizophrenia, in the recent scenario, is still looked upon as an enigma even when the rate of occurrence of the ailment is one of the most common among the various forms of mental illness. As was noted by Kyziridis (2005), the historic development of the ailment enabled the researchers to determine the differentiated notion related to the understanding of its pathogenesis. In the view of the ethnographic studies, it has been comprehended that schizophrenia is present among the cross cultures to a significant extent. It is worth mentioning in this context that conceptions similar to ‘Psychotic Symptomatology’ and ‘Schizophrenic-syndromes’ have been clearly depicted in the ancient civilizations across cultures around the world. Reflecting on the Stone Age era, Kyziridis (2005) further highlighted the rituals where skulls have been thronged with holes in them that further advocates the supernatural beliefs related to mental illness for prolonged years. Such aspects have also been related with the occurrences of schizophrenia when assessing the historic developments of the treatment processes in the doctrine of this particular mental illness. The ancient view regarding the various symptoms and treatment related to schizophrenia can be found in a summarized manner, in the medical book written by Aretaios in the 2nd century. This particular research study also entails certain pioneers of the psychoanalysis, in the beginning of the 1700s, when the emphasis was more on the part of detailed as well as accurate descriptions related to the process and the state of the mental disorder. Additionally, the studies related to schizophrenia, conducted during the early 1700s can be observed to put emphasis on the estimation of symptoms being manifested to the sanities through the peripheral signs, such as language, gesticulations and abandoned emotions. Accordingly, during the mention era of 1700s, the causes for the occurrence of schizophrenia were still unknown to many of the medical professionals owing to which, the treatment procedure incorporated to cure the mental illness was majorly based on superstitions (Kyziridis, 2005). Apart from the application of superstitious rituals, the study of ancient treatment methodology further reveals that fever therapy used to be implemented as an initial treatment process to cure patients suffering from schizophrenia. As could be availed from the researches of the 16th century, medical practitioners were able to identify a slight percentage of recovery among the Schizophrenic patients during high temperature. However, as a matter of fact, the therapy was recorded as unreliable to yield long-term effectiveness. The other treatments such as gas therapy, electroconvulsive treatments, sleep therapy and insulin therapy resemble few of the ongoing treatments for the schizophrenic patients that have been into practice since the early period of the mental illness being identified. Apart from these techniques, electroshock was also recommended by medical practitioners as an aid to schizophrenic patients (Kalinowsky & Hippius, 1969). Kyziridis (2005) further revealed that within the years 1869 and 1903, the two treatments chloral hydrate and the barbiturates were taken into consideration for treating the patients suffering from schizophrenia. The aforesaid treatment was consequentially observed to have provided certain relief to the nervousness and the sleep turbulences suffered by schizophrenic patients but were criticized to be limited in curing the patient’s hallucination and psychotic indications (Kyziridis, 2005, pp. 42-46). Eventually, following continuous researches and scientific experiments, the first medication for the treatment of schizophrenic patients, came into the market in the year 1950. The medicine was named ‘Chlorpromazine’ as an anesthetic to serve the purpose of controlling the cardiorespiratory tremor. In the process of evaluation, the surgeon found that mixing up ‘Sedating, ‘Narcotic’ and ‘Hypnotic’ drugs can probably result in the differentiated behavior of the patient. However, later experiments suggested that the selected drugs also had certain adverse effects on the patient as a consequence of regular dosage (Kyziridis, 2005, pp. 42-46). Correspondingly, it can be affirmed that the study of schizophrenic diseases took a major leap in the 20th and 21st centuries. Various terminologies along with the rudimental causes have been examined and proved during this era by medical practitioners. For instance, the research study conducted by Cofikun & Zorolu (2008) signified ‘Early On-set of Schizophrenia’ (EOS) as a term that depicts about the onset of the psychotic indications before an individual reaches his/her 18 years of age. This particular inference denoted a step ahead in the treatment process of schizophrenia. According to the study, it has been comprehended that the symptoms of schizophrenia generally did not occur before the 13 years of age and thus, the development of brain during the most likely years of the occurrence of schizophrenia could be studied. Scientific experiments performed during the 20th and the 21st century further explained that the hereditary factors play a vital role in the ‘pathogenesis of Schizophrenia’. The concept of ‘Very early Onset of Schizophrenia’ (VOES) was also identified during the mentioned eras of 20th and 21st centuries, which signifies the early symptoms of the ailment. Furthermore, it was during this particular era wherein it was evaluated that communication deficits frame the vital reason among the families of the individuals suffering from VEOS. Modern medical research studies have further analyzed that VEOS patients have to undergo ‘premorbid abnormalities’ in the fields of language and the social development. The scientific analysis conducted during the recent years further revealed about the developmental differences in the language as well as cognition to have strong effects on the range and the eminence for the symptom exhibition of the schizophrenic patients. Furthermore, discussions took place continually, based on VEOS revealed the infrequency of such psychiatric disorder within children. Experiments in this context also concluded that VEOS diagnosis mainly require a multidisciplinary approach and a careful differentiated diagnosis considering the risk factors involved, excluding the neuropsychiatric disorders to a substantial extent. Correspondingly, treatments such as psychopharmacological and educational approaches have been considered for the patients as well as the family members to cure schizophrenia in the modern day context (Cofikun & Zorolu, 2008, pp. 142-145). According to the research study conducted by Kendle & Schaffner (2011), the dopamine hypothesis related to schizophrenia has gained its protuberant etiologic philosophies with regard to psychiatry. This particular research mainly summarizes the efforts for the empirical examination of the ‘cerebrospinal fluid DA metabolites’, ‘brain studies’ and the ‘genetic association studies’. Apparently, to understand the development of the dopamine hypothesis of Schizophrenia requires a scientific context. Correspondingly, it was in the 20th century, in the year 1975, medical experiments revealed that “too much dopamine is released at synapses in the central nervous sys-tem” (Kendle & Schaffner, 2011). According to the survey report of National Alliance of Mental Illness (2008), it was further revealed in the recent era that schizophrenia disrupts a person’s ability to pursue a clear thinking and manage the decisions and emotions and to get associated with others under normal mental state (NAMI, 2008, pp. 1-8). Contextually, in consideration with the development of the treatment phase for schizophrenia, the symptoms must be noted to gain a better idea with regard to the treatment phase. There are mainly three types of symptoms associated with schizophrenia, which can be connoted as positive, negative and cognitive symptoms. The positive symptoms, which can also be depicted as ‘psychotic’ symptoms, reflect upon the person’s loss with the external world. This particular syndrome mainly denotes mental experiences that ultimately lead to the mental illness. The most common positive syndrome related to schizophrenia has further been identified as hallucination experienced by the patient. It has been further comprehended that people suffering from the ailment also deciphers the syndrome of delusions. However, medication related to these symptoms as well as psychological strategies are gradually gaining greater acceptance to supplement their impression in broader medical implications. For instance, ‘cognitive behavior’ reflects the positive syndrome related to the people suffering from schizophrenia. In the similar context, negative symptoms inculcate emotional flatness as well as lack of expressiveness. Furthermore, the negative syndromes related to schizophrenia incorporate the capability to start up an activity and moves in a flow with the same. It has been further noted in this regard that difficulties associated with social cues and relationship are very much in common related to this particular syndrome. Moreover, in concern with the cognitive symptoms, it can be observed to mainly pertain in the thinking process of any individual. It can be mentioned in this regard that a person suffering from the schizophrenia deciphers a negative syndrome that relates with the cognitive behavior of an individual, which further diminishes their thinking capability by a substantial extent as compared to any other normal person (Schwarcz, Karajgi & Carthy, 2009, pp. 255-258). In consideration with the treatment methodology, the selection of the processed medication is tailored by individual needs of the person. According to the study of ‘Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE), it has further been observed that recently, medical practitioners have put their entire concentration on the study to have a thorough research on medication adherence within an individual with regards to chronic schizophrenia. Furthermore, the study also revealed an effective psychosocial approach related to the people, who are suffering from schizophrenia. To be precise, the study emphasized that the emergence of a Program for Assertive Community Treatment (PACT) can be represented as an effective, integrated, intensive effort in order to help the community to maintain a higher and a better standard of living and therefore, combat the social reasons associated with the incidents of schizophrenia. Recent researches have also concluded that schizophrenic patients usually do not receive proper medical treatments as they are mostly identified to belong from minority ethnic groups or regions, which lack in terms of adequate awareness and knowledge regarding the illness. It has been further observed that schizophrenic patients can be treated well without any medication under the purview of family involvement as well as care, which certain requires adequate awareness of people regarding the ailment (NAMI, 2008, pp. 1-8). Part C: Contribution of research studies in the advancement of treatment for Schizophrenia Affidavit of Robert Whitaker The findings of the article titled, “Affidavit of Robert Whitaker”, puts emphasis on the implications of schizophrenia and its standard antipsychotic medications. In this particular study, it has been claimed that people suffering from schizophrenia does not suffer from the chemical imbalance occurring in the brain, as can be commonly witnessed in case of any other type of mental illness. The discussion further argues that it is owing to this reason that the antipsychotic drug assigned as a medication for the ailment fails to serve the purpose. It can be inferred from this study that the medications such as, thorazine and the other antipsychotics results in extreme side effects with regard to an individual suffering from schizophrenia rather than curing the ailment. Psychiatrists’ thus belief that the necessity of the usage of drug on a continuous basis mainly emerges from differentiated studies of the schizophrenic symptoms deciphered by the patient. It can be viewed and observed from the aforesaid research study that the usage of drugs has been found to be effective than acting as a mere placebo for curing the psychotic symptoms related to the ailment (Whitaker, n.d, pp. 2-13). Furthermore, the study reflects about the abrupt actions of quitting the antipsychotic medications abruptly by the patients as a major reason for the failure of treatments at often instances. The study further inferred that the discontinuation of treatments can also be identified as a possible reason for the upsurge in the frequency of the person getting chronically ill. Additionally, the result also depicts about the differentiated reasons enervating to the side effects that usually leads to early death of the patient. The study further draws upon a comparative analysis of the traditional and unconventional treatment of the mental illness, in correspondence to which, it was revealed that traditional medications, as compared to the usage of the new and latest medication treatments, had less severe side-effects and were more effective in the treatment of schizophrenia (Whitaker, n.d, pp. 2-13). Radical Psychology On the basis of an observation technique, the article titled, “Radical Psychology”, raises a question concerning the occurrence frequency of schizophrenia within the society. It further reveals about the usage of insulin, electroshocks and other traditional forms of medication, as a treatment of schizophrenia. The article further argues that the ‘antipsychotics’ and the ‘antidepressant’ are severely misleading the society with respect to have a positive effect for the treatment of people suffering from the severe ailment (Weitz, 2008). It has been revealed in this study that the usage of antipsychotics and the antidepressant does not cure mental illness and depression of an individual. These medications have been further argued as fraudulent diagnosis in the article. Additionally, the article also provides an insight about the adverse and harmful effects of drugs prescribed during medications, to the schizophrenic patients (Weitz, 2008). Most commonly prescribed drugs, which mainly include ‘antidepressants’ that are continuously injected to the patients suffering from the ailment, results in adverse deterioration of the patient even if the dosages are low or nearly moderate. This shows the negative implications of the medication over schizophrenic patients. Based on these grounds, the article argues that these so called effective and safe medications usually produce a throbbing as well as adverse side effects. This study further depicts about the ‘Ontario’s Leash Law’ that constitutes the ‘Community Treatment Order’, which finally proclaimed the Mental Health Act in the year 2000 under the purview of Harris-Troy government. Furthermore, it can be observed from the research study that physical restraints may have quite alarming as well as dangerous effects on the mental health of the patient that might further cause deaths (Weitz, 2008). Synthetic-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Dronabinol): Can Improve the Symptoms of Schizophrenia The article titled, “Synthetic-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Dronabinol): Can Improve the Symptoms of Schizophrenia” reflected on the improvements of the patients suffering from schizophrenia. To be noted, the samples considered for the observation in this study included the schizophrenic patients receiving ‘Cannabinoid Agonist Dronabinol’ (CAD) as their treatment process. It has been further comprehended from the research findings obtained and explained in the article that CAD is associated with adverse effects related to the treatment of schizophrenic patients. It can be inferred from the study that the component of marijuana being used in CAD medication intensifies the schizophrenic symptoms in many cases. Again, from an opposing view, the survey conducted by Schwarcz, Karajgi & Carthy (2009) was also interpreted in a critical manner, which comprehended that to certain extent, CAD also incurs certain positive effects to the schizophrenic patients. Hence, from a critical understanding, this particular research study advocates that the usage of ‘Adjunctive Dronabinol’ has been examined to reduce the psychotic symptoms within the patients suffering from the ailment (Schwarcz, Karajgi & Carthy, 2009, pp. 255-258). The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement The article titled, “The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement” further highlights the history of psychoanalytic movement in respect to the schizophrenic symptoms. Correspondingly, the study reflects on the discovery made by Breuer’s that presented the detailed discussions about the generic symptoms of the schizophrenia. This study further entails the difference between the opinion of Breuer’s and Freud in order to intimate the psychic mechanism of hysteria (Freud, 1914). Concerning the findings obtained from the article, it has been further observed to have revealed that sexual transference generally occur in majority of the treatment processes of neurosis concerning schizophrenic patients. The study also provides an idea about the mechanism of cathartic that frames an important facet of psychoanalysis. Furthermore, the theories related to the repressions and resistances along with the childhood sexuality have also been taken into consideration for the sympathetic treatment of the comatose. The findings of the article also proved crucial to postulate that the theory related to repression stand to be a vital mast upon which, the structure of the psychoanalysis respites (Freud, 1914). The Myth of Mental Illness With reference to the article titled “The Myth of Mental Illness”, it can be depicted that ‘Mental Illness’ is not different from other physical diseases as often perceived by common people. The difference mainly lies in the perception that depicts about one as mental imbalance and the other as physical ailment. This study mainly aimed at providing rational views with the intention to nullify the pre-conceived notion that mental illness is analogous to madness while physical illness requires additional care and medication facilities. With this intention, the study highlighted various facets of schizophrenia as distinctive from the concept of madness. The study also revealed that psycho-social behavior that contributes to communications about the symptoms of the neurological functioning that is mainly termed as ‘epistemology’ has been a vital leap towards the study of schizophrenia. Additionally, the research study also depicts about the role of ethics in psychiatry while prescribing medication to schizophrenic patients. Based on a generalized point of view, the article further inferred that in the discipline of medicines, as a science as well as technology, the various responsibilities of practitioners inculcate numerous ethical considerations and requirement of morally sound judgmental abilities. Grounded on these understandings, the discussion of the article further affirmed that the psychoanalysis is the delinquency related to beliefs rather than medicines (Szasz, 1960). References Boydell, J., Os, J. V., McKenzie, K., Allardyce, J., Goel, R., McCreadie, R. G., & Murray, R. M. (2001). Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: ecological study into interactions with environment. British Medical Journal, 323, pp. 1-4. Bhurge, D. (2005). The Global prevalence of schizophrenia. PLOS Medicine. Retrieved from http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020151 Cofikun, M., & Zorolu, S. (2008). Very early onset schizophrenia: a case study. Case Report, pp. 142-145. Fearon, P., Kirkbride, J. B., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Lloyd, T., Hutchinson, G., Tarrant, J., Fung, W. A., Holloway, J., Mallett, R., Harrison, G., Leff, J., Jones, P. B., & Murray, R. M. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: results from the MRC AESOP Study. Psychological Medicine, 36, pp. 1541–1550. Fellous, J. M., & Suri, R. E. (2002). The roles of dopamine. The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks, 2, pp. 1-8. Freud, S. (1914). The history of the psychoanalytic movement. Classics in the History of Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/History/ Jenkins, J. H. & Schumacher, J. G. (1999). Family burden of schizophrenia and depressive illness: Specifying the effects of ethnicity, gender and social ecology. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, pp. 31-38. Kadri, N., Manoudi, F., Berrada, S., & Moussaoui, D. (2004). Stigma impact on Moroccan families of patients with schizophrenia. Original Research. Retrieved from http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/publications/archives/cjp/2004/september/kadri.asp Kalinowsky, L. B. & Hippius, H. (1969). Pharmacological, convulsive and other somatic treatments in psychiatry. The Convulswe Therapies, pp. 202-204. Kapur, R. L. (1992). The family and schizophrenia priority areas for intervention research in India. Indian J. Psychiat, 34(1), pp. 3-7. Katallia, W. (2011). Schizophrenia: an overview of a severe mental illness. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. Retrieved from http://www.customwritten.com/Cheating_Students/katallia-fraud Kendle, K. S., & Schaffner, K. F. (2011). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: an historical and philosophical analysis. Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 18(1), pp. 41-63. Kirkbride, J. B., Fearon, P., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Tarrant, J., Lloyd, T., Holloway, J., Hutchinson, G., Leff, J. P., Mallett, R. M., Harrison, G. L., Murray, R. M., & Jones, P. B. (2006). Heterogeneity in Incidence Rates of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Syndromes. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63, pp. 250-258. Kyziridis, T. C. (2005). Notes on the history of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatry, pp. 42-46. Lopez, S. R., Hipke, K. N., Polo, A. J., Jenkins, J. H., Karno, M., Vaughn, C., & Snyder, K. S. (2004). Ethnicity, Expressed Emotion, Attributions, and Course of Schizophrenia: Family Warmth Matters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(3), pp. 428 – 439. McCabe, R. & Priebe, S. (2004). Explanatory models of illness in schizophrenia: comparison of four ethnic groups. British journal of psychiatry, 185, pp. 25-30. Myers, N. L. (2010). Culture, stress and recovery from schizophrenia: lessons from the field for global mental health. Cult Med Psychiatry, 34(3), pp. 500–528. NAMI, 2008. Understanding Schizophrenia and Recovery. Understanding Schizophrenia. Retrieved from http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=by_illness&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=67729 Remschmidt, H. (2001). Schizophrenia in children and adolescents. Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-298. Schwarcz, G., Karajgi, B., & Carthy, R. M. (2009). Synthetic -9-tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol) can improve the symptoms of schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 29, pp. 255-258. Szasz, T. S. (1960). The myth of mental illness. Classics in the History of Psychology, 15, pp. 113-118. Veling, W. A. (2008). Schizophrenia among ethnic minorities. Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development. Weitz, D. (2008). Struggling against Psychiatry’s Human Rights Violations. Radical Psychology 7. Retrieved from http://www.radicalpsychology.org/vol7-1/weitz2008.html Whitaker, R. (n.d.) Overview of Research Literature on Schizophrenia and Standard Antipsychotic Medications. Affidavit of Robert Whitaker, pp. 1-13. Appendix Source: (Veling, 2008, pp. 146) Read More