Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan - Research Paper Example

?Introduction Cognition consists of numerous abilities. Of these, intelligence, memory and language are three of the most important. All of these cognitive abilities have an element of nature to them, as all of them also have an element of nurture to them. Intelligence and language are more actively developed then memory is. However, with all of these cognitive capabilities, one must perform exercises to keep the domain sharp throughout one’s life if one wants to ensure that they do not suffer a significant decline in the domain. This paper will focus upon intelligence, memory and language. Specifically, this paper will offer an overview of the development of each, detail what enhances each and slows decline in each, then compare the three domains to one another with regards to these factors. Intelligence Intelligence development, according to Butterfield (1986) is fostered whenever the individual is posed a problem for which a solution is not presented or readily known, especially if the solution is typically acquired at a later age (Butterfield, 1986, p. 47). Intelligent action is a part of this development, and intelligent action consists of an interaction of base knowledge, strategies, metacognitive understanding and executive routines. These processes combine to form the basis for intelligent action, according to Butterfield (1986). Butterfield also states that any one of these factors cannot account for intelligent action, in that all four actions combine to produce intellectual development and active intelligence (p. 48). Thus, intelligence develops in solving problems which have been uniquely presented to the individual, especially if these problems are above the present cognitive abilities and level of the individual. Moreover, intelligence has many domains, according to Carroll (1986). Carroll sees intelligence as embracing three domains – academic and technical; practical and social (Carroll, 1986, p. 51). The academic domain of intelligence encompasses schoolwork, professions and occupations. The practical domain of intelligence encompasses everyday issues regarding one’s daily affairs, planning a life’s work, making a living and planning a course of action. Social intelligence deals with the interactions with others. Problems arise in each of these domains – social, academic, and practical, and Carroll states that intelligence dictates how one is able to solve these problems successfully (Carroll, 1986, p. 51). As for what environmental and inborn factors enhance the development of intelligence, the classic debate is whether intelligence is a result of nature or nurture. Seligman (1992) states that, while the debate is indeed complex and fraught with passions and peril, there is one issue on which all serious scholars agree – there is not a single gene which shapes one’s intelligence. The scholars who believe in the hereditability of intelligence state that 50,000 different genes are responsible for the shaping of intelligence. That said, the rest of the debate is steeped with passion, simply because humans need to believe that everybody has equal inborn ability. This has been the underpinning of democracy, and humans also have a need to believe that inequalities may be reversed with the proper amount of nurture. On the other hand, the nature side of the argument implies a less than egalitarian society. Still, certain experts do state that intelligence is largely inherited, and some scholars believe that the inheritability factor of intelligence is up to .7 – which means that 70 percent of intelligence is inherited (nature), and 30 percent is nurture (Seligman, 1992, p. 74). Indeed, one study bears out the notion that intelligence might be more the result of nurture. This study concerned Tennessee mountain children who were tested in 1930 and 1940. The kids tested in 1940 tested 10 points higher than the kids in 1930. Seligman suggests that the reason for this is that the environment of the Tennessee kids was dramatically impacted during these ten years, as these kids started getting electricity and the Tennessee Valley Authority also impacted these kids. Seligman suggests that this study supports the nurture end of the argument. Nurture encompasses not just one’s culture and learning, however, but, rather, everything in the person’s environment that is not captured in the individual’s genetic heritage. This might include pre-natal factors and nutrition. The nurture factors are also inevitably influenced by nature factors, as Seligman points out. Kids who are bright will be nurtured more, in that the parents will spend more time talking and reading to them, and teachers will shower them with more attention than other kids (Seligman, 1992, p. 77). Therefore, the debate about nature verses nurture rages on, with just a few key points upon which everyone can agree – first, that intelligence is not entirely inheritable nor entirely the result of nurture; and, second, that there are a variety of factors which can and will influence intelligence, ranging from nutrition, educational opportunities and pre-natal behaviors. Intelligence declines with age, according to Seligman (1992). Seligman states that intelligence peaks around the ages of 20 to 25. Then, as one grows older, the brain shrinks and the skull thickens. The domains of intelligence which decline the most are in digit symbols, block design and picture arrangement. Seligman states that, as one ages, one has memory lapses, such as forgetting people’s names, as well as absentmindedness problems. The latter of these problems is marked by forgetfulness, as when people forget if they left on the stove (Seligman, 1992). That said, Chernow (1997) believes that the decline in intelligence may be ameliorated by practicing mental games, and he has published an entire book on this (Chernow, 1997). Memory Memory is another aspect of cognitive ability. Thompson & Madigan (2005) state that memory consists of two major domains – episodic and semantic; and implicit-procedural. Episodic memory is memory of one’s own experiences. Semantic memory is the sum total of of the knowledge that one has – the facts one knows, the understanding of mathematics, etc. On the other hand, implicit-procedural consists of knowing how to do things. It is memory without awareness. Habituation is one example of implicit-procedural memory, and an example of this is when one habituates stimuli. This occurs when one no longer notices certain sounds. Associative learning is another kind of implicit-procedural memory, and Pavlov’s dogs are an example of this. To reiterate Pavlov’s famous experience, Pavlov fed laboratory dogs and rang a bell. The dogs salivated. Eventually, Pavlov only rang a bell and the dogs still salivated, because they came to associate the bell with feeding time (Thompson & Madigan, 2005, p. 15). Habituation is the most basic form of memory. Environmental factors may enhance memory, according to Chernow (1997), and he has dedicated an entire book on things that ordinary people can do to enhance their short-term and long-term memory. For instance, he describes such strategies as “chunking,” which means that items may be remembered in chunks, much like a social security number. This may mean that the individual may categorize items, such as animals, flowers and furniture. He also suggests that the process of not forgetting what is stored may be enhanced by repeating, rehearsing, using and practicing. Maintaining interest, or associating things with something that is found interesting to the individual is another way of enhancing memory development. Making things meaningful is another strategy, as is relaxing (Chernow, 1997, p. 8). Chernow’s book is filled with practical tips for enhancing one’s memory development, including tips for remembering names and tips to conquer absentmindedness. His approach suggests that memory development may be enhanced by constant practice and employing strategies that help one retain information. As with intelligence, memory also declines with age, and Chernow offers a way to overcome this as well. The reasons for this, according to Chernow, is because our metabolism slows with age, which means that processes get slower and it takes longer to retrieve what is to be remembered. Reaction time also slows down, and people become isolated when they get older. These also affect memory. Retirement, with the attendant reduction in motivation and activities, brings still more memory decline. To this end, Chernow offers mental calisthenics which can help with the decline in memory. Among these are 1) training oneself to become more observant – pay special attention and notice to one’s surroundings; 2) refine one’s senses – become more aware of different sounds, scents and aromas; 3) learn something new – this can be a new language, learning to play an instrument, woodworking, etc.; 4) pursue a hobby; 5) memorize something one likes, such as poems, songs, and book passages; 6) recall one’s personal history – what did one do on one’s last birthday, what did not one do on Thanksgiving of last year, etc. Chernow states that these and other strategies slow memory decline because they keep the brain cells active and increases the number of active circuits and brain synapses (Chernow, 1997, p. 194). Language Language development, according to Clark (1978) is an active process among children. They do not simply learn a language because they hear it spoken. Rather, they for hypotheses about word’s meaning and innately create strategies for using the words. Clark states that deictic terms, which are terms which shifts according to the relation to the participant – such as the words I, we, you and they mean different people according to who is adjacent to the participant – are difficult for children to grasp. This is because the references shift, such as the words “I” and “you” mean different people according to who is the speaker of the conversation; and because boundaries shift, in that “here,” “there,” “this” and “that” will mean different things. Marler (1996) states that humans are inborn with a natural instinct to learn language (Bloom, 1996, p. 591). Language development is enhanced with the development of language skills. Herriot (1970) describes these skills are hierarchical in nature. What this means is that the skills are formed in a hierarchy which rises from phonological to grammatical to semantic skills. Moreover, the enhancement of language development depends upon feedback, in that one needs to have correction of one’s performance in order for one’s language to develop (Herriot, 1970, p. 53). In other words, one must work on their skills and tackle language from the very basics of phonemes, then go up the hierarchy to grammar and syntax. Having somebody to correct and guide is also essential to enhancing language development. Languages may be lost, which often refers to attrition of a second language or a mother tongue. It may also refer to the tendency of the elderly, who lose language skills in that they forget names and lose comprehension. Lambert & Freed (1980) suggest that refresher courses are helpful in retaining second languages or mother tongues, as these courses enhance rusty communication skills (Lambert & Freed, 1980, p. 173). For the aphasic, which are elderly who have lost certain language skills, Lambert & Freed (1980) suggest multiple modality learning, which uses sensory, movement, written and music associations. These may be combined with drills, analytic explanations and appeals to nonanalytic modes, all of which may help certain learners. Similarities and differences across cognitive abilities The major similarity is that, for any kind of cognition, the individual must “use it or lose it” – this means that, whether the cognitive domain is that of intelligence, memory or language, the individual needs to perform exercises to sharpen these domains throughout life, in order to slow decline in these functions. These may take the form of courses to help individuals who are having language problems, or working on memory exercises to help keep the memory sharp. These same memory exercises also help one with slowing intelligence decline, as these memory exercises help keep mental faculties sharp. The differences are that each of the cognitive functions develop in a slightly different way. The research suggests that intelligence and language are both developed by active processes, in that the individual actively builds language and intelligence by either solving problems or forming hypotheses and testing them out. On the other hand, much of the memory domains appear to be more inborn, although enhancing memory is more of an active process. Conclusion Cognitive abilities include intelligence, language and memory. These cognitive abilities are developed as young children, and all of them tend to decline as we get older. That said, there are active ways to stem the decline, as the decline is not inevitable. The research suggests that individuals should never stop learning throughout their lives, and simple things like taking up hobbies and doing mental puzzles may help one keep sharp throughout life. Language loss may also be slowed by education and courses. The overarching theme of the research is that one must actively pursue methods of enhancing their cognitive abilities if one is to slow the decline that has sometimes been seen as inevitable. Bibliography Bloom, P. (1996) Language acquisition. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chernow, F. (1997) The sharper mind. New York: Prentice Hall. Herriot, P. (1970) An introduction to the psychology of language. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd. Lambert, R. & Freed, B. (1980) The loss of language skills. London: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. Seligman, D. (1992) A question of intelligence. New York: Birch Lane Press. Thompson, R. & Madigan, S. (2005) Memory: The key to consciousness. Washington: John Henry Press. Bibliography Read More