Learning Theories of Bandura, Skinner and Tolman - Research Paper Example

? Psychology Cognitive Learning theory uses a matrix of perspectives as a tool to identify and regard different theories of learning. Prominent theories are placed on a chart with two intersecting continua and the continua are further divided into four categories. Categories represented are interactive, learner active, environment active and passive (Annan, Bowler, Mentis, and Somerville). Among some of the more well-known theories are Piaget, Erickson, Wegner, Pavlov, Darwin and Gesselt. Those which this paper intends to explore are Bandura, Skinner and Tolman, respectively. Bandura is located in the interactive quadrant of the chart with Skinner and Tolman located in the environment active quadrant. Contributions of each will be explained and I will attempt to explain the connection between each theory and prior experience in the learning process. Are Bandura, Skinner and Tolman as relevant of theories today as they were when they were first developed? Learning is often defined as an outcome; classic definitions describe it as either a process which leads to change or leads to the possibility of change. More recently this has been questioned; noting that there does not necessarily need to be neither change nor the possibility of change in order for there to be the acquisition of some input from the external world. Some have attributed changes in behavior and conditioning to experiences more so than knowledge. Most people would say that learning is definitely a process outside of or external to the learner and that some knowledge is acquired through no action of our own and some see it as making ‘sense’ or attributing meaning to reality, using interpretation and understanding (Smith). When we consider learning as a process we then focus on theory, deciding how and why change takes place as a result of learning. Behavioral, cognitive, social and humanistic are each theory orientations for learning. BF Skinner is considered one of the most important behavioral psychologists of our time. Attempting during the early part of his career to become a writer he experienced failure and sought to invent himself as a behaviorist after closely following much of earlier behaviorist Watsons’ work. Though he had never taken a psychology course his career was to go on for over fifty years successfully in this field in the science of observable behavior. Through the use of experimentation with rats Skinner was able to study and expand on the theory of operant conditioning based on the work of Edward Thorndike, ‘Laws of Effect’ (Mcleod) by adding the theory of reinforcement. This conditioning was essentially changed behavior as a result of enforcement given after a desired or wanted response. Three different responses were noted after the behavior; neutral, reinforcers, and punishers. Reinforcements strengthen behavior and positive reinforcement uses a consequence that the individual or in Skinners particular study, a rat, finds rewarding. Removal of a reinforcer that is negative can also strengthen a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an adverse reinforcer which the animal finds rewarding (Mcleod). Stopping an unpleasant experience strengthens behavior though it is negative. Punishment was shown to weaken behavior that was originally strengthened. It was noted that is not always easy to distinguish between a punishment and negative reinforcement as the outcome can be the same. Punishment essentially stops an undesirable behavior through the use of a punishing factor. As related to current education models that we have in place there is much evidence of Skinners’ work. We use positive and negative reinforcement in most of not all education endeavors through the use of current grading systems and in early education through the use of praise or disciplinary action. Though this theory relates directly to behavior it is sometimes more difficult to recognize its application in academic learning. Students who put forth the most effort are usually rewarded with grades and positive attention thus the behavior is repeated. Students who do poorly may receive negative reinforcement or punishment and seek to avoid the poor performance in the future. This may be evidenced differently in situations such as the everyday constant learning that takes place without full awareness. Another theory would be better suited to this area. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory makes use of prior experience through the association of behaviors or actions with outcomes, both positive and negative. Through the permanent acquisition of the conditioning, that is, meaning the fact that the response is permanent once learned unless memory becomes impaired this conditioning can be life-long. Those undesirable learning behaviors we exhibit early on are usually recognized as undesirable when we are older though we may still choose to repeat them, deciding that the learned outcome is not strong enough to deter the behavior any longer. Permanence becomes evident when conditioning is no longer required, neither positive nor negative to elicit the same response. Skinners’ theory is used in employer settings, educational settings and in parenting relationships. Edward Tolman also became known and developed his theory at the same time as Watson. He is known as a cognitive theorist though his career was spent at Berkeley in California as an instructor (VanderZwaag). His trademark is a cognitive theory of learning. Tolman, similar to Skinner, used rats in his experiments to develop his theory. Using a maze he devised a schedule and method of offering reward for each control group after they had completed a successful run of the maze, some receiving reward after two or three successful days, some not until they had completed the maze each day for a week. In each group there was noticeable and marked improvement after receiving the reward. Obviously none of the rats were able to know that they would eventually get rewarded though they continued each day in their attempts to get through the maze. This fact demonstrated what Tolman referred to as latent learning, which is learning in the absence of a reward. This is what individuals are described as doing on a constant basis as they interact naturally with their environment. He used walking or driving as an example, stating that it becomes second place without need for thought as we go through the same routine, demonstrating our learned behavior, without the possibility of reward. Tolman was found to be controversial with this theory despite the fact that his experiment were later carried out by others. He described himself as a ‘purposive behaviorist,’ not liking the behaviorism of Watson (VanderZwaag). His studies supported his theory that learning did not require stimulus and response or conditioning with reward or punishment since each group of animals found their way through the maze without reward for varying lengths of time. Tolman is considered the originator of cognitive theory and his description or terminology of latent learning is very useful. It describes the constant processing and retention of information as being possible and frequent without reward or punishment. No motive or learned behaviors are necessary in the day to day acquisition of knowledge and the application of that knowledge as memory once learning has taken place. Prior experience becomes basis for repeated successful completion of the maze by the rats and once they are rewarded they gain even higher rates of success. Permanent change in behavior is gained as the action or behavior becomes part of memory and an individual has cognitively embedded the behavior as intrinsic. This theory is demonstrated in our everyday behavior such as driving or swimming. We learn these actions not as a result of expected reward or punishment and our memory allows us to continue these actions without being cognitively aware or studying them further. Riding a bicycle might also be an example. This ability might be demonstrated in church with the memorization of hymns or book passages after hearing them several times. Young children who are upset when being with a child care provider will stop crying after a short time usually, without expected reward or punishment. After some time the child may not be upset at all when the parent disappears. Social learning theory is a combination of cognitive and behaviorism, describing attention, memory and motivation. Bandura developed a social learning theory through observing and analyzing human behavior as associated with media communications. Bandura’s major contribution to human behavior theory is the premise that individuals learn by observing, imitating and modeling after others. Bandura believed that through these actions we are later able to recall them and repeat them. He used the term ‘reciprocal determinism,’ believing that the world and a person’s behavior or the environment and a person’s behavior cause each other (Learning…). Bandura’s described four conditions that he thought necessary for effective modeling to take place; attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Bandura also suggested that behavior causes environment as well after studying aggression in individuals. Bandura applied his theory to mass media communications studying and providing suggestion for violent and aggressive television programming. He believed that television violence is easily able to grab attention through the use of simplicity, distinctiveness, its’ prevalent, useful in the story line and depicts violence in a positive manner. Bandura felt that learning through this type of observation could be useful in avoiding violent mistakes by using undesirable behavior. Bandura’s stated that ‘instantaneous reproduction’ of observed television violence is uncommon (Prentice-Hall). He differs in classical learning theory in the belief that we are able to learn behaviors without practice or reinforcement, believing that we store events in visual images and through verbal codes. Storing visual images of an action observed on television allows for multiple replays in our mind, using memory and cognitive thinking skills to gain knowledge and learning of the observed behavior. Interpreting what we see this way allows us to use both behavior and cognitive theory, the very definition of social learning theory. When there is an awareness of the actual individual steps involved in an observed behavior is where there are the most learning gains. Visual images may be viewed in the mind as a whole but individuals studying these images intensely may reap the gains from learning the technique through this manner. Putting or using these learned behaviors requires motivation, meaning that there usually need be an expected reward or punishment involved. Reward or punishment could only be something perceived by the observer, being immeasurable. Motivation deals with the subject of potential outcomes rather than sanctions already experienced (Prentice-Hall). Bandura believes that internal and external forces work together to influence and shape behavior. Though Bandera’s theory that behaviors seen on television are modeled by observers is proven in his studies actual environments contribute as well. Environments being different in each setting mean that responses and behaviors will be different showing that there is no predictive power involved in the repetition of observed violent behaviors on television. Because there is no predictive power in this theory it is not useful as a good indicator or predictor of violent behaviors but it is still useful as a theory of learning using modeling and imitation. Obviously this theory of learning relies heavily on mental processes and the processing and analysis of information, reviewing and assimilating from memory and discarding those bits of accumulated input that we do not need or have use for or wish to apply. This theory can make use of prior learning by applying it to visual images and verbal cues to recall and associate when modeling or imitating behaviors. Permanent change will take place when the image or cue has been studied in the mind and committed to memory and/or application. This theory is applicable in the setting as described of watching television or the actions and behaviors of others such as in the case of imitating friends in their behaviors which is common among children. It is used to learn new skills when we are in employment training often as we watch our trainers and gain abilities and become proficient with the behavior. We often use this theory in studying for a test by mentally reviewing the information, attempting to commit it to memory from which we are able to recall when it is needed. Skinner, Bandura’s and Tolman are each as applicable today as when their theories were first developed. Skinners theory of operant condition is seen through the use of positive and negative enforcement that we find in classrooms and in parenting. Tolman’s theory is shown by our ability to learn without either negative or positive enforcement as we pick up information externally and commit it to memory using cognitive abilities. Finally Bandura’s theory is put into action as we assimilate and use bits of information from our external environment affecting and influencing our behavior, both cognitively and behaviorally. Bandura’s study involving television and violence is the only study that is not reproducible because of environment factors that are not the same outside of the laboratory environment. Bandura’s theory is also the only one that allows for the observation of information without the retention or learning of anything, stating only that it is a possibility while it is also a possibility that input will be dismissed. Learning specialists and educators continue to use these theories in their education process. Companies who may use instructive videos rely on observational methods of learning and imitation in their training programs. Military services rely on Tolman’s theory in that an individual, through practice or repeated action will learn without positive or negative reinforcement. Whichever theory you will find its application in most education programs and most day to day lives. References Annan, J., Bowler, J., Mentis, M., & Somerville, M. P. (2011). Between Theory and Practice Falls the Shadow : The Learning Theories Profile. Journal Of Cognitive Education & Psychology, 10(3), 238-252. doi:10.1891/1945a€“8959.10.3.238 Mcleod, S. (2007). Skinner | Operant Conditioning. Simply Psychology. Retrieved December 24, 2011, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Prentice-Hall. (1977). Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura, Chapter 31. Social Learning Theory. Retrieved December 25, 2011, from http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/bandur-s.mhtml VanderZwaag, L. (1998, December). Psychology History. Welcome to Muskingum University. Retrieved December 25, 2011, from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/tolman.htm Smith, M. K. (2011, December). Learning theory - models, product and process. Contents @ the Informal Education Homepage. Retrieved December 24, 2011, from http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011, December). Social Learning Theory (Bandura) at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved December 25th, 2011 from http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html Read More