Psychology of language learning - Assignment Example

? World-wide, there are more individuals who are bilingual rather than monolingual [Gardner This means that there are more children in school who are studying in a language that it is not their primary language, and some of the challenges of this are formidable. This very trend speaks to the importance of second language learning, and how we go about teaching and even researching that field. Further, the second stage process in this, is the very evaluation of how we teach English as a second language. The evaluation itself will be the focus of the following study, and it will be demonstrated in the following how current theory provides the research, evidence and foundation for the relationship between motivation, and L2 outcomes or learning success. It has been argued and demonstrated that individual differences (ID) can affect the success of L2 learning and acquisition. With these differences, the psychology of individuals takes on a very significant meaning: "ID constructs refer to dimensions of enduring personal characteristics that are assumed to apply to everybody and on which people differ by degree" [Dornyei, 2005, 4]. Individual differences constitute traits that may be used to categorize people but, when examined more thoroughly, they can be seen as markedly different from one person to the next. Some of the major or most significant variables that cause differences, include age, intelligence, motivation and language anxiety. The evaluation of individuals coming to an L2 situation or context, is an area of research that has been expanding or broadening over the last years. It has also been narrowing in the sense that we now know that personality and aptitude are among the most significant predictors [Sturgeon, 2011, 4-5]. Aptitude applies to traits involving reasoning and processing of information in reference to a specific area of performance [Sturgeon, 2011, 5]. Learning styles is another of the very strong predictors for L2 outcomes, and Reid defines learning style as an "individual's natural, habitude, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information skills" [Dornyei, 2005, 121]. This means that L2 learners apply different approaches when challenged by the very same tasks. ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING: Among the variables and factors examined in the body of research on L2 acquisition and learning, it can be said that motivation is among the most studied. For instance, Keller argues that "motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree and effort they will exert in this respect" [Gardner, 2005, 3]. Compared, this definition, as contrasted with past research on motivation is quite different and for example, it was defined as "characterized by willingness to be like valued members of the language community [Gardner and Lambert, 1959, 271] in a previous study by Gardner. From the past to the present, it can be said that any comparative analysis of this yields the understanding that we are getting to a more nuanced or specific definition. GARDNER'S DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION: One area where Gardner challenges past definitions of motivation in relation to L2, was the focus. In the past, both studies and in turn, the pedagogy developed around L2 was focused primarily on intelligence as it related to verbal ability [Gardner, 2001, 28]. What has changed, and significantly from this perspective, are affective variables that have become significantly more important in L2 acquisition. These variables included student attitudes and motivation, self confidence, personality traits (such as empathy and need for achievement), and language aptitude [De Bot, Lowie and Verspoor, 2005, 191]. Gardner's interest in motivation extended from his belief that many of the variables mentioned above, were dependent on motivation. For instance, a student with a high level of intelligence, may not have success in L2 acquisition, if they are not motivated. Likewise, a high aptitude may prove futile if the learner is not enthusiastic about he learning process or the goal of succeeding with the L2. Finally, an individual with a high degree of motivation can consistently achieve better L2 outcomes even if their aptitude or intelligence is not a significant factor. Thus, the shift in the theories surrounding L2 can largely be described as a shift in focus from intelligence to motivation -- that is, a switch in emphasis has been made because high motivation is more important than a high degree of intelligence. Someone who might achieve a higher mark on an IQ test, is going to do worse in L2 than an individual with a high degree of motivation. Another definition of motivation has emerged from Gardner's explanation of it as a mulch-faceted construct, citing that a motivated individual is one who expends effort to attain the goal. Applying this definition, can be inferred that there are at least three requisites for motivation to take place. It is not sufficient than individual makes an effort to learn a new language if they are not persistent with a given task. It is more important that the student enjoy the learning process and the activities that lead to L2 acquisition [Hashimoto, 2002, 31]. Gardner's 'Socio-Educational Model' of L2 acquisition sees motivation as a function or outcome of two main variables: inegrativeness and attitudes towards the learning situation [Gardner, 2001, 31]. In brief, integrativeness is defined as a genuine interest in the learning of the second language, such that the individual can identify him or herself with the other L2 community. Second, attitudes towards the learning situation, refers to the attitudes directed at any aspect of the given language learning situation such as classmates, teachers and the course materials [Gardner, 2001, 42]. Combined, these two variables constitute or construct a theory that is holistic or broad in scope, and it is known as 'integrative motivation'. Integrative motivation is a complex and expanding topic in the field of research for L2 acquisition. As a working definition, integrative motivation, according to Crookes and Schmidt, is attributed to positive attitudes toward the language community, and being open to the possibility of integrating with that group or at least in meeting or interacting with them [Gardner, 2010, 2]. Phrased in different terms, individuals need to identify with the community or want to become a part of that community in order to have the type or the form of motivation that has positive or noteworthy outcomes. As is argued by Norris-Holt [2001]ntegrative motivation is the more significant variable among all of the factors that go into constructing a working definition of motivation. An individuals willingness to take on L2 is exactly proportionate to their willingness to become a part of a community, even if that 'part' is merely defined in terms of the identification with that community -- that is, and not necessarily as wanting to be a part or need to work in the community, and so forth. The Socio-Educational model of L2 acquisition, proposes that ability and motivation are primary individual difference variables [Gardner, 2005, 89]. The focus of the current analysis is primarily on motivation as a variable in determining the success or outcomes of L2 acquisition. The purpose of describing the socio-educational model is only to outline how Gardner defines motivation and how this is different from his concept of integrative motivation. OTHER STUDIES ON MOTIVATION: Among the many competing theories on L2 acquisition, Naimen et. al., found that the most successful learners display particular characteristics such as positive task orientation, ego involvement, need for achievement, high aspirations, goal orientation, perseverance and tolerance of ambiguity [Narayanan, 2006, 28]. Most of these characteristics or traits are associated with motivation. Perseverance, for instance, is defined as: "persistence in doing something despite difficulty or delay in achieving success" [Oxford American College Dictionary, 2011, 1012]. This definition is closely related to persistence, a requisite in Gardner's [2010] definition of motivation. As related to L2 acquisition, motivation is has a strong connection to the influence of teachers or instructors. In other words, motivation is not an isolated phenomenon pertaining only to the particular individuals involved, rather, it cannot be separated from the teacher themselves. To this end, there are a number of important aspects or elements of pedagogy that have been researched and analyzed with respect to L2 acquisition outcomes, and motivation. Bernaus and Gardner [2008, 391], for example, maintain that the ten commandments for teachers developed by Dornyei and Czizer have noticeable success in terms of outcomes. Similarly, there are 12 suggestions for teachers for motivating L2 acquisition proposed by Williams and Burden that have likewise become important in terms of curriculum development and teaching style. Research by Bernaus and Gardner [2008, 393] found that motivation plays a far greater role to in L2 acquisition when students perceive a frequent use of a variety of teaching strategies. In this context, 'perceive' is the operative word because strategies will still be useless if there is no perception or recognition by the students. Classroom language learning, as a learning process as well, may be treated the same way as other subjects are taught, so long as it is with reference to the principles of L2 acquisition: “foreign language is the same as any other kind learning and can be explained by the same laws and principles” [Ellis, 1990, 20]. In order for L2 acquisition teaching strategies to be successful, students must be engaged with curriculum, not solely in terms with L2 acquisition, but also with an awareness of how L2 acquisition is being taught. The differentiation in teaching styles in this regard, directly impacts or influences motivation. From the bodies of research presented above, it can be concluded that motivation is an important variable for the differentiation of potentially successful L2 acquisition students from unsuccessful ones. That is, it is theory that ought to be capable of being tested or evaluated. Unlike intelligence, motivation is not innate. No individual is born with a high degree of motivation as something which is innate to them. Conversely, motivation is nonetheless a significant variable that is well within the control or decision making abilities of individuals [Bernaus and Gardner, 2008, p. 391]. Motivation in these terms, must be further analyzed with respect to the wide range of differences that go into constructing these individual variations -- from one student to the next. When applied to L2 acquisition, the interesting aspect of motivation is that it does not solely rest with the individual students. That is, motivation cannot be ascribed to, or, isolated as the responsibility of individuals. It has to be viewed as dialectical or the outcome of the interaction between student and learner. In this regard, it can be said that the teacher, their particular style, and moreover, the very way in which they perceive the teaching environment along with particular issues that emerge in the classroom, are also very significant when considering the outcomes of L2 acquisition. Further, one of the elements that can be controlled is the approach taken by the teacher. That is to say, one cannot do much to change the backgrounds that students bring to the classroom, but they can change how they choose to accommodate these differences [Bernaus and Gardner, 2008, p. 392]. This piece of information is essential for L2 acquisition teachers, as their approach can now be supported with considerable data from long-term research, indicated their critical role in the success of L2 acquisition and learning. INVESTIGATING MOTIVATION IN AN L2 LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: The investigation into the presence of motivation in a formal L2 acquisition and learning context (e.g. in a classroom setting) can be measured or evaluated using Gardner's Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB). This is a measure that has been successfully utilized by several studies [see: Masgoret & Gardner, 2002]. It has already been proven as a reliable and valid tool for measuring motivation and was specifically developed for the purposes of measuring motivation and its role in L2 acquisition and learning. The AMTB measures all of what has been raised and defined so far, such as, the variables of motivation, integrativeness and attitude specifically as it pertains or is focused upon the learning environment or situation. Further, this test or the AMTB can be applied by administrators at various junctures of the learning process, and as soon as results are gathered and analyzed, it follows that different strategies can be integrated to accommodate the findings established by the AMTB. It is important that the outcomes of the AMTB be integrated or that there is a discernible relationship between how students are doing and what changes need to be made in order to improve these very findings. In research conducted by Bernaus and Gardner [2008, pp. 389-392] it was concluded that the use of traditional strategies, as opposed to innovative ones, has a higher positive correlation to the success of L2 acquisition and learning. They define traditional strategies as those that highly involve the teacher or instructor (e.g. as 'teacher-centered') in the process of learning the elements and the structure of a language. Examples of traditional strategies include, making students do listening activities using audio and video, assigning homework to students and evaluating language achievement through tests. Innovative strategies, are more student-centered, encouraging students to interact with both the instructor/teacher, and with other students. For instance, working in pairs, allowing for self and co-evaluation, and the use of language learning games in the classroom have all been strategies for better outcomes with respect to L2 acquisition and learning. The reason why the use of traditional strategies is more important in L2 acquisition and learning, is that students are aware of them, as compared to innovative ones. [Bernaus and Gardner, 2008, 396]. Familiarity with traditional strategies can be a more effective variable than new or different strategies. As a consequence, students exposed to these methods are likely to feel more motivated as they immediately can perceive that the learning itself is transpiring or taking place. CONCLUSION: Combining teacher motivational strategies with the AMTB, supports the claim that motivation, while stemming from the individual, can also be externally influenced. If a student displays high internal motivation, then the teacher has less work to do in order to ensure successful outcomes in regard to L2 acquisition and learning. However, if the student is not very motivated, then it is up to the teacher to take on the responsibility to make use of the various motivational strategies to ensure that learning is amplified or improved. It is in this scenario that the teachers role becomes more pronounced, placing more emphasis on the instructors capability to support the student and positive influence motivation. PROPOSAL: Measuring motivation is a complex problem. While there are some metrics that can unquestionably provide strong indications of the varying degrees or quantifiable rates of motivation, the issue is in many regards more complicated. While the following will propose an approach to study L2 and motivation, it has to be said at the outset that one of the more complicated problems regarding motivation, is the lack of a uniform psychological definition. That is, how does one account for such a wide range of variables that go into defining personality types such that motivation can be measured. Arguably, when you are dealing with individuals from varied cultural backgrounds and linguistic groups, different age groups and finally, varying genders, it remains a difficult problem to fine a uniform or singular definition of human motivation which can account for all of the differences. However complicated the nature of motivation is, there are a number of concrete approaches to the issue that can be quantified or studied. One approach to examining L2 and motivation, would be direct observation. Direct observation with an eye toward examining outcomes, can lead to a more refined understanding of how the relationship between L2 and motivation coincide. By this, it is implied in terms of examining existing outcomes, and in turn, further analyze the results. So, for example, in any given classroom there are going to be over achievers and under-achievers. Both extremes, are what can be examined through direct observation. By taking the top of the class (and classes), and examining the bottom end of the performance scale, one can analyze why it is that some achieve while others at the absolute opposite end of the scale, struggle. By interviewing the students at the extremes, and in turn, analyzing the demographics, educational level, and language skills, a comprehensive picture can be created as to what variables or factors are common to achievers and under-achievers. In fairly common sense terms, the larger the sample, the more probable that the sample case is representative of a larger trend. The focus of this approach, is to build on the successes of those who are exemplars in a positive sense as far as L2 and motivation goes, and of course, the flip-side of that equation is the analysis of the under-achievers or those with a demonstrably low degree of motivation. What are the common variables which go into constructing the individuals who are struggling? And, likewise, building on the achievements of the successful students can establish a set of factors or variables that might be common to all individuals. By looking at the problematic students or the under-achievers, the establishment of common variables – again, through direct observation and analysis of demographics, an agenda to improve outcomes can also be determined. By direct observation, it is implied in terms of looking into existing students in the classroom, but also in contexts where they are studying or doing exercises, and so forth. That is, observing all of the activities carried out by an individual that relates to their L2 acquisition. Read More