Psychology of language learning - Assignment Example

? Motivation: An Important Variable in Determining variations between Individual L2 Learners Table of Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………3 Motivation and Second Language Learning……………….…………………………………4 Gardner’s Definition of Motivation……………….…………………………………………….4 Other Studies on Motivation…………………………………………………………………...6 Investigating Motivation in an L2 Learning Classroom……………………………………...8 References……………………………………………………………………………………..11 Introduction It is noticeable that individuals rarely speak only one language. Tucker (as cited in Gardner, n.d.) asserts that there are more bilinguals than monolinguals. He went on to suggest that many went to schools where the medium of instruction is not their mother tongues, but a language that they have acquired later in life. In this context, learning second language may sound easy; the fact, however, is that this kind of language learning is a complex process, and many people who have studied another language found such an objective very difficult, even impossible (Gardner: 2010). They suggest that individual differences (ID) can affect the success of L2 learning and acquisition. Although one can surmise that individual differences are those which make any person unique, psychology takes on a more specific definition: “ID constructs refer to dimensions of enduring personal characteristics that are assumed to apply to everybody and on which people differ by degree” (Dornyei: 2005: 4). In other words, individual differences constitute traits that may be used to categorize people but which, when given a closer look, actually vary from one person to another. There are many aspects of individual learner differences in second language (L2) learning. The literature has provided factors such as age, intelligence, motivation, and language anxiety (Chen, Wang & Cai: 2010) to be influential in determining the success of second language acquisition. Other bodies of research indicate that personality and aptitude are other major predictors of L2 learning. For example, Skehan (Sturgeon: 2011) indicates that aptitude is a major predictor of L2 learning. Aptitude applies to traits involving reasoning and processing of information in reference to a specific area of performance (Sturgeon: 2011). There’s also some research implying that learning styles have a definitive effect on L2 acquisition. Reid (Dornyei: 2005: 121) defines the construct as “an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way (s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.” The definition implies that learners have a different approach in processing a similar task. Similarly, learning styles are not innate but are personal preferences (Dornyei: 2005). As such there is no standard on which learning style would directly lead to success in L2 learning. Motivation and Second Language Learning Perhaps one of the most studied variables in L2 learning is motivation. According to Keller (Gardner: 2005: 3), “motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree and effort they will exert in this respect.” In the earliest work of Gardner and Lambert (1959: 271), however, motivation was defined as “characterized by willingness to be like valued members of the language community.” From both points of view, it can be inferred that motivation is something that stems from the individual or the learner. Gardner’s Definition of Motivation Much of the research today linking motivation and second language learning were patterned after the works of Gardner whose interest in both concepts began in 1956 while working with his thesis advisor W.E. Lambert. Before, the general agreement was that intelligence and verbal ability were involved in learning a new language (Gardner: 2001). Later on, affective variables are thought as more important in determining the success of second language acquisition. These variables include student attitudes and motivation, self-confidence, personality traits (such as empathy and need for achievement), and language aptitude (De Bot, Lowie, & Verspoor: 2005). The interest on motivation, according to Gardner (2001), stems from his belief that many of the variables mentioned above are dependent on motivation. For example, a student with a high level of intelligence may not have success in learning a second language if he/she is not motivated. Similarly, a high aptitude may prove futile if the learner is not enthusiastic in learning. On another note, a student with average intelligence may be more successful at learning a second language if he/she has the motivation. Another definition of motivation came out when Gardner (2010), explained that it is a multi-faceted construct, citing that a motivated individual is one who expends effort to attain the goal, is persistent, and enjoys undertaking activities necessary to achieve the goal. Using this definition, it can be inferred that there are at least three (3) requisites for motivation to take place. It is not enough that an individual makes an effort to learn a new language, or that he/she is persistent at a given task; more than that, the student needs to enjoy the learning process as well as those activities that lead to learning (Hashimoto: 2002). Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model of second language acquisition sees motivation as a function of two variables, integrativeness and attitudes towards the learning situation (Gardner: 2001). Integrativeness is defined as a genuine interest in learning the second language so that the person can identify him-/herself with the other language community. Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation, on the other hand, refers to attitudes directed to any aspect in the given language learning situation such as classmates, teachers and course materials (Gardner: 2001). These two constructs influence motivation and the whole is called Integrative Motivation. Crookes and Schmidt (Gardner: 2010) defined integrative motivation as having positive attitudes towards another language community, being open to the possibility of integrating to the group or at least in meeting or interacting with them. Such approach is called the naturalist language teaching where the community is highly regarded as a means of language learning (Block: 2003). Norris-Holt (2001) points out that integrative motivation assists learners in gaining some level of proficiency in the language. This means that an individual’s willingness to identify with the community of the language can help in successful L2 learning. Further, this suggests that learning a second language becomes easier if the learner is willing to adopt the ways of the target language community. The Socio-Educational model of second language acquisition proposes that ability and motivation are primary individual difference variables (Gardner: 2005). This paper, on the other hand, will only focus on motivation as a variable in determining the success of language acquisition. Thus, no further discussion on ability will be provided. The purpose of describing the socio-educational model is only to outline how Gardner defines motivation and how this is different from his concept of integrative motivation. Other Studies on Motivation The classic study of Naiman et al. (Narayanan: 2006) also found out that most successful language learners display certain characteristics such as positive task orientation, ego involvement, need for achievement, high aspirations, goal orientation, perseverance and tolerance of ambiguity. Most of these traits, according to Narayanan (2006), are associated with motivation. Perseverance, for example, is actually defined as “persistence in doing something despite difficulty or delay in achieving success” (Perseverance: 2011). The concept of motivation as related to second language learning is viewed as something that can be influenced, especially by the teachers. In other words, more than merely teaching students, teachers also have the responsibility of motivating their students. To this effect, there have been proposals on how educators can support and develop motivation. Bernaus and Gardner (2008) mentioned the ten commandments for teachers developed by Dornyei and Csizer and the 12 suggestions for motivating students by Williams and Burden as fine examples of how motivation can be supported by the teacher. As how Grass and Selinker (2008) further contend, motivation “is a predictor of language learning success” although there is still a need to define what exactly is the nature of that motivation to finally conclude that it is one of the strongest factors to predict language learning success. There is no fixed definition of motivation however, Saville-Trioke (2006: 86) that majority of the experts use the following definitions: “significant goal or need, desire to attain the goal, perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2, and value the potential outcomes or rewards." Research by Bernaus and Gardner (2008) found that motivation has a far greater effect on learning when students perceive frequent use of strategies employed by their teachers. In this context, perceived is the operative word because strategies will still be useless if the students don’t recognize them. Classroom language learning, as a learning process as well, may be treated the same way as other subjects are taught as long as it is with reference to the principles of L2 learning (Ellis: 1990). This implies that for strategies to be effective, these should be felt and seen by the students as actions specifically designed to help them learn a second language. From the bodies of research presented above, it can be concluded that motivation is an important variable differentiating successful L2 learners from the unsuccessful ones. Unlike intelligence, motivation is not innate. An individual is not born with high motivation to learn another language. Alternately, like intelligence, motivation stems largely from the individual -- meaning it’s up to the person to be motivated and to find reasons to be motivated. But the beauty of the concept of motivation when tied to L2 learning does not only lie on its being controlled or influenced by the learners themselves, but also on the fact that extrinsic factors, especially teachers and teacher perceptions can also be manipulated to bring motivation to a higher level. Because of this, it’s safe to assume that there is a greater chance of facilitating L2 learning because motivation can be controlled and manipulated both ways, from the perspectives of the learner and the teacher. This piece of information is essential for second language teachers because they are now backed up with years-of-research worth of data indicating their critical role in the success of second language learning. Investigating Motivation in an L2 Learning Classroom Investigating motivation in learning a second language in a formal context (i.e. in a classroom setting) can be best measured using Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB). Because this test has already been used by several studies (e.g. Masgoret & Gardner: 2002), this has already been proven as a reliable and valid tool to measure motivation. Additionally, this test was specifically developed for the purpose of measuring motivation and its role in L2 learning, so it’s but proper that any individual interested in these two constructs would make use of the AMTB. The AMTB measures the variables motivation, integrativeness and attitudes towards the learning situation. These variables, according to Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model, are important in the successful learning of a second language. The test can then be administered to students learning a second language. It is proposed that test administration be given before the start of the course so that teachers will have an idea on the level of motivation of their students. As soon as results are gathered, teachers will then acknowledge who among their students are highly motivated and who are not. From this piece of information, motivational strategies can then be employed. Teachers can make use of different motivational strategies to help those who are not highly motivated in learning the second language. In a research conducted by Bernaus and Gardner (2008), it was concluded that the use of traditional strategies, as opposed to innovative ones, have higher positive correlation to the success of second language learning. They defined traditional strategies as those that highly involve the teacher (i.e. teacher-centered) in the process of learning the elements and structure of the language. Examples of traditional strategies are making students do listening activities through audio and video, assigning homework to students, and evaluating language achievement through tests. Innovative strategies, on the other hand, are more student-centered, leading students to interact with each other and their teacher. Examples are making students do pair work conversations, letting them do self- and co-evaluation as well as letting them play games in class. Bernaus and Gardner (2008) stated that the reason why the use of traditional strategies is more important in L2 learning is that students are more aware of these strategies compared to the innovative ones. In other words, traditional strategies are viewed as educational and are the very characteristics of the learning process. Because of this, students can immediately see one as they experience it. Combining teacher motivational strategies and the AMTB support the claim above that motivation, while stemming from the individual, can also be influenced externally. If the student displays high internal motivation, then the teacher has less work to do to ensure successful language learning. But if the student is not highly motivated, then it’s up to the teacher to make use of various forms of motivational strategies to ensure that learning is amplified. It is in this kind of scenario that the teacher’s role becomes more pronounced, putting more emphasis on his/her capability support the student and influence motivation. References Bernaus, M., & Gardner, R.C. (2008). Teacher motivation strategies, student perceptions, student motivation and English achievement. The Modern Language Journal, 92(3), 387-401. doi 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00753.x Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Chen, J., Wang, C. & Cai, J. (2010). Teaching and learning Chinese: Issues and perspectives. NC: Information Age Publishing. De Bot, K., Lowie, W. & Verspoor, M. (2005). Second language acquisition: An advanced resource book. OX: Routledge. Dornyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual differences in Second Language Acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed second language acquisition: Learning in the classroom. MA: Blackwell Publishers. Gardner, R.C. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In Z. Dornyei, Motivation and second language acquisition. USA: National Foreign Language Resource Center. Gardner, R.C. (2001). Language learning motivation: The student, the teacher and the researcher. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 6(1), 1-18. Gardner, R.C. (2004). Attitude/Motivation test battery: International AMTB research project. Retrieved from http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/englishamtb.pdf accessed in 3/5/2011 Gardner, R.C. (2005). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. Retrieved from http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/caaltalk5final.pdf accessed in 3/5/2011 Gardner, R.C. (2010). Motivation and Second Language Acquisition: The Socio-Educational Model. New York: Peter Lang. Gardner, R.C. (2010). Integrative motivation: Past, present and future. 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Motivation as a contributing factor in second language acquisition. The Internet TESL Journal, 7(6). Perseverance. (2011). In Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0621760#m_en_gb0621760 accessed in 6/5/2011 Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sturgeon, C.M. (2011). Aptitude, attitude, and motivation as predictors in foreign language learning. Retrieved from http://leeuniversity.academia.edu/cmsturgeon/Papers/ 141702/Aptitude_Attitude_and_Motivation_as_Predictors_in_Foreign_Language_Learning accessed in 5/5/2011 Read More