Child and Adolescent Psychology - Research Paper Example

?Child and Adolescent Psychology Introduction While the 20th century witnessed the advent of a broad range of personality and developmental theories the vast majority of approaches were predicated on the foundational methodology of behaviorism, psychoanalytical and cognitive models. While all three models work to answer core fundamental psychological questions, they also differ in fundamental ways. This essay examines the key concepts of these psychological approaches, considering three similarities and three differences in terms of theoretical foundation, developmental elements, and therapeutic elements. In addition to these points, it considers the interaction of cognitive, physical, and emotional development in the overall development of the child. Behaviorism Behaviorism is predominantly rooted in the theories of B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov who identified this process of learned behavior as classical conditioning, and outlined a number of means that such behavior can be reinforced and altered through stimulus and reward (George & Cristiani 1995). However, outside influences contend that behaviorism has a diverse group of founders, also being attributed to Joseph Wolpe’s group in South Africa, and Hans Eysenck in the United Kingdom. Since its inception it has influenced many different theoretical approaches, many of which have coupled it with outside influences in creating a hybrid understanding. I. Theoretical Foundation The theoretical foundations of behaviorism are rooted in the classical conditioning theories of Ivan Pavlov and the conditioning theories of B.F. Skinner. While these theories are similar they can be differentiated. Classical conditioning examines what it terms involuntary behavior patterns; these are behaviors that are contingent on past behaviors, with no immediate consequence in the subject’s environment. Operant conditioning operates on the environment and voluntary behaviors with responses in the patient’s environment, generally associated with direct consequences. The cognitive model foundationally incorporates elements of learning theory into its approach. As behaviorism is rooted in highly testable scientific foundations, it has the benefit of objectivity where other therapeutic processes, namely psychoanalytic, have been deemed pseudo-science. It is one of the few therapeutic approaches that can be tested scientifically, as it contends that the internal state of the human can only be altered by affecting their outside behavior. For example, when attempting to treat insomnia the psychoanalytic approach would focus on the unconscious problems underlining the occurrences, whereas the behavioral therapeutic model would attempt to modify the behavior of sleeplessness. Conversely, the cognitive approach would seek to alter the individual’s irrational thoughts. II. Developmental Elements As behaviorism is rooted in operant and classical conditioning models, its developmental theory examines the individual’s behavior as it relates to an outside stimulus. Behaviorism understands human behavior in terms of the actions of the individual. This is differentiated from the cognitive approach in that the cognitive approach shifts the focus from the person’s behavior to their thought processes. This line of thinking contends that just as individuals learn maladaptive behaviors, the individual’s subjective interpretation of reality and external events is oftentimes irrational and can be altered to more functional levels. In these regards, childhood development is firmly rooted in the process of behavioral conditioning. This developmental theory also understands childhood development as distinctly different from the psychoanalytical model, as behavior is understood in terms of conditioning rather than psychosexual development. III. Therapeutic Elements The goals of behavioral therapy are to reach a more functional means of existence. The therapist works with the patient in developing adaptive and functioning responses to achieving goals. In strictly behavioral models the therapist will consider means of altering behavior. Conversely, the cognitive approach will work towards adjusting specific irrational thoughts and the psychoanalytical approach will attempt to resolve unconscious psychic dilemmas. In many instances the goal of behavioral therapy is to help the patient better manage situations that pose stress to their lives by calmly accepting the situation as a means of feeling better. The psychoanalytic therapeutic approach is lengthier as it relies on an in-depth understanding of the patient’s core issues, and the cognitive model is more direct and results oriented. Psychoanalytical I. Theoretical Foundations Sigmund Freud wasn’t the first to investigate the philosophical ramifications of the unconscious, but his early 20th century psychological examinations and development of psychoanalysis make him the progenitor of the psychoanalytic development theory (Kovel 1987). While psychoanalysis has been extended into a broad range of analytic fields, most notably literature, is has largely been linked to his assertion that unconscious childhood or past-life experiences are oftentimes repressed by the individual, causing them to deleteriously affect later life functioning (Geldard 1998). Most individuals are familiar with Freud’s characterization of the personality as differentiated into three categories of ego, super-ego, and id. It’s important to note that Freud believed that the conscious elements represented by the ego in certain situations experienced cognitive overload resulting in repression as a protective mechanism. II. Developmental Elements Perhaps the central difference between the psychoanalytical approach and the cognitive and behavioral approaches is in terms of childhood development. Freud developed a series of psychosexual stages of development that characterize the human development process from birth. As the child is born they enter the oral phase of development, and then subsequently progress into the anal, phallic, latency, and genital phases. The stages functioned to develop the sexuality of the individual, from one of polymorphous perversity to heterosexuality. It was Freud’s theoretical understanding that if difficulties were encountered in any of these stages that they would cause unconscious psychic dysfunctions later in life (Weiten, 1996). At birth the child begins the oral stage of psychosexual development. This stage lasts until the individual is approximately two years old. As the moniker suggests, this stage of development is characterized by infantile fixation with the mouth. Freud’s concept of the Id is notable here, as he believed that the child in the oral stage is Id driven, as the ego and superego have not entirely developed; furthermore, as the child’s self-concept has not emerged, they are driven by the pleasure principle. It is during this stage that the child’s self-concept forms, as they recognize that they are a distinct entity the rest of their environment. The child also notably experiences weaning – that is, their first sense of abandonment – as their mother or parental guardian leaves them alone. Freud believed that this experience greatly contributed to ego formation. The next psychosexual stage is the anal phase. This stage of development takes place between the ages of fifteen months through three years. The primary characteristic of this phase is the movement of the child’s pleasure area from the oral region to the anus. The most notable developmental trait that occurs during this stage is that the child becomes toilet trained. Freud believed that toilet training, ego development and anal fixation were related as it is the infants overcoming of the overpowering urges of the Id to continue to engage in defecation without restraint; it is only through the infant’s restraint of these urges that there are able to become toilet trained and further develop the ego. The next stage is the phallic stage. This stage occurs within the child from approximately 3-5 years of age and the child’s sexual fixation shifts from the anus to the genitals. This is one of the most important stages of development as the child experiences the Oedipal Conflict. This is the term Freud used to describe the child’s desire to engage in sexual relations with the mother; upon realizing the impossibility of this the male child develops castration anxiety, while the female child develops penis envy. This internal Id and ego conflict furthers develops the self-concept and gives rise to the superego. The next phase is the latency phase. In this stage the individual’s Id drives have been subsumed to the individual’s ego, as they learn principles of delayed gratification, and their sexual drive is redirected into pursuits such as school, art, and play (Weiten 2010). The final psychosexual phase is the genital phase. This phase occurs from puberty to until approximately age 18. While the genital phase shares with the phallic stage pleasure rooted in the genitals, in this stage the ego is further developed and so takes on full adult sexuality. This stage also implements gratification through symbolic thinking, rather than simply the primary drives; this symbolic pleasure occurs in such things as love and relationships. III. Therapeutic Elements In examining the psychodynamic aspects of personality theory, considering it in terms of therapeutic processes reveals its foundational theoretical perspectives. Different from the cognitive and behavioral approaches, psychoanalytic theory understands personality as rooted in the complex interaction of conscious and unconscious forces governing the individual’s actions. While psychodynamic personality approaches have been practiced for nearly a century and have engendered a number of therapeutic techniques, two of the most predominant techniques are free association and dream interpretation. In free association the patient is encouraged to freely express their thoughts while the therapist examines their narrative descriptions for its underlining subconscious motivation; similarly dream interpretation is a method used by the therapist as a means of direct access to unconscious impulses. A number of objections have surfaced in response to the psychodynamic personality approach that has largely marginalized it as a theoretical model. One of the most prominent is the general rejection of many of Freud’s theories as largely unscientific, as their assumptions are predicated on untestable hypotheses (Elliot 2002). Cognitive I. Theoretical Approach The cognitive therapeutic approach developed in response to the general disillusionment with the psychoanalytic process. Where psychoanalysis greatly emphasizes untestable unconscious impulses, the cognitive approach is rooted more in a humanistic understanding of personality, and the behavioral approach more rooted in conditioning patterns. A foundational element of the cognitive approach is that the patient’s perspective and thoughts are the key indicators of their emotional state and that through rational therapeutic and self-examination the patient can consciously determine their psychology. II. Developmental Elements Cognitive psychology understands development and personality as rooted in the individual’s thought processes. This is distinguished from the behavioral approach that roots development in conditioned behaviors, and from the psychoanalytical approach that understands development in terms of psychosexual stages. While the objective nature of the cognitive approach is efficient for dealing with issues related to dysfunctional thinking, many psychological issues are deep-rooted to the extent of such an approach not adequately responding to the problem. For instance, one might consider the ineffectiveness the cognitive developmental approach would assuredly encounter when faced with a child with bi-polar disorder, or schizophrenia. It seems that the cognitive approach sacrifices for objectivity and efficiency, deeper insight into the nature of the patient’s malaise. While cognitively redefining the tendency of a patient to engage in anorexic or anxiety inducing behavior may have immediate and clearly definable functional gains, the underlining cause or ‘root’ of the issue may be ignored – ultimately resulting in the long-term shortcomings of this theory in relation to the behavioral or psychoanalytical models. III. Therapeutic Elements Cognitive therapy functions as the therapist engages the client in traditional forms of discourse and examines instances where their thought processes may be termed irrational or dysfunctional. The therapist then directs the patient’s conscious attention to the areas of concern and aids them in developing a more functional paradigm. In many regards the discourse method is similar to the psychoanalytical model; however the underlining assumption of unconscious impulses is abandoned for a more objective approach. In addition to its relative objective nature, the cognitive approach differs from psychodynamics in that it often incorporates describable goals and tasks that the client achieves and partakes between sessions. As a result, the behavioral and cognitive approaches are deemed to be more efficient and objectively testable than the psychoanalytic approach. Conclusion In conclusion, it’s clear that there are considerable similarities and differences between the behavioral, psychoanalytical, and cognitive psychological models. In these regards, these elements are demonstrated through the examination of the foundational aspects of theory, development, as well as the therapeutic approaches. Ultimately, the interaction of cognitive, physical, and emotional development in the overall development of the child is markedly different in each of these psychological approaches. References Corey, G. (1991), Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy 4th edn, Brooks/Cole USA. Elliot, A. (2002) Psychoanalytic Theory: An Introduction. North Carolina: Duke UniversityPress. George, R. & Cristiani, T. (1995), Counseling: Theory and Practice, 4th edn, Allyn & Bacon USA. Geldard, D. (1998), Basic Personal Counseling: A Training Manual for Counselors 3rd edn, Prentice Hall Australia. Kovel, J. (1987), A Complete Guide to Therapy: From Psychoanalysis to Behavior Modification, Penguin Australia Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations. New York: Wadsworth Publishing. Read More