Nature and Nurture of Mankind Intelligence - Term Paper Example

? Nature and Nurture of Mankind Intelligence and number submitted The debate over the nature and nurture of intelligence has been a classic controversy among researchers for decades. In the history of the debate, there has been no clear inference to the dispute; however, there are a number of hypothesis in existence (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). Both opinions of the debate denoted as nature camp and nurture camp have been explored comprehensively amongst experts. There has been overwhelming evidence discovered in favor of the two hypotheses. The nature side of the dispute contends for a hereditary interpretation of the potent of intelligence. It claims an individual maintains his/her mental ability is exclusively centered on what an individual is genetically born with. By defending nature camp hypotheses of the debate solely would be instituting that an individual’s environment plays no part in defining his/her mental aptitude (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). Contrariwise, the nurture camp, argues that an individual’s environment plays a prominent role in his/her mental aptitude. This may be the smallest obvious prominent factor on people’s life. However, considering the extreme outcomes of mankind’s surrounding on their lives, an in depth research should be taken to scrutinize this notion. Does heredity play a larger role than the environment in determining intelligence? It is always hard to distinguish the relative of environment and heredity on mankind’s characteristics. Individual who have same genetic makeup (e.g., Parents, brothers, and sisters) typically stay in the same settings of the environment. Therefore, when there are similarities in 1Q among family members, it is difficult to anticipate whether those similarities are the result of the environments or genes that members of the same family share (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). However, from the studies carried before, most researchers believe that heredity play a crucial role in determining human intelligences. For instance, researchers have anticipated for decades that traits such as color of the body hair and eyes are recognized by specific genes encrypted in each mankind living cell. The nature camp theory, takes things a step beyond to state that more abstract traits, involving intelligence, sexual, aggression, and personality orientation are also encrypted in a person’s DNA. There are some extremely obvious motives for one to be convinced that genetics play a key role in an individual’s intelligence. When looking at the biology of heredity, it is clear that genes provide mankind with their own physical tools, which is in spirit, and their basis (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). This is to say that, chromosomes and genes are passed on from one generation to another. Therefore, in the absence of heredity, mankind would have nothing to pass on biologically to their descendants; therefore, the environmentalist impression of genetics being illogical is obvious incorrect. This being said, there are numerous pioneers of intelligence testing who have contributed to the debate over the nature and nurture of intelligence. Some of these pioneers are discussed in the following paragraphs. Francis Galton is one of the famous pioneers in the field of psychology. Francis claims that intellectual ability is largely inherited and that the propensity for genius to run in members of the same family is the result of natural superiority (Adams, 2005). Francis argument has cropped up time and again in the history of psychology and has inspired much research into the testing of intelligence. In his research, Francis anticipated that his true interest was researching the variations in mankind ability and intelligence in particular. He was convinced that success was a result of qualities that are transferred down to descendants through heredity. In addition, he was convinced that achievement in various fields resulted mainly from hereditary factors, which is the controversy to those researchers who believed in the environmental determination of intelligence and mankind ability (Adams, 2005). In his work, the interest in the role of heredity directed him to introduce the procedure of twin research to examine the various contributions of nature and nurture. Also, he inquired into racial dissimilarities and was one of the first to postulate questionnaire and survey methods, which he used to examine mental imagery in various groups. Charles Spearman defines intelligence as general cognitive ability that could be examine and expressed numerically. In is work, Charles described a concept he denoted to as general intelligence (the g factor). After applying the method known as factor analysis, to demonstrate a number of mental aptitude tests, he resolved that scores on the tests were remarkably the same. Individuals who did well on one cognitive test, tended to do well on other tests, while those individual who recorded poorly on one test tended to score poorly on the others. Charles concluded that behavioral genetic (construct of g) is highly heritable. His work has numerous other biological correlates, involving brain size. It is also a substantial predictor of people differences in many social outcomes, especially in education and the world work (Adams, 2005). Raymond Cattell is another known psychologist who has contributed a lot on the argument over the nurture and nature of intelligence. In his work, he claims that intelligence is composed of a number of various abilities that interact and function together to produce overall individual intelligence. He identified the technique of fluid and crystalized intelligence. In his work, fluid intelligence is the capacity to reason or think logically and explain problems in novel circumstances, independent of attained knowledge. He stated that fluid intelligence is the ability to evaluate novel problems, establish patterns and relationships that fortify those problems and the extrapolation of such complications using logic (Adams, 2005). On the other hand, he stated that crystallized intelligence is the ability to use experience, skills, and knowledge. He claims that crystallized intelligence do not equate to memory or knowledge, though, it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. He further describes crystallized intelligence as an individual’s lifetime or intellectual achievement, as elaborated largely through an individual’s vocabulary and general knowledge. Howard Gardner proposed another model of multiple intelligences. He contends that there are various assortments of cognitive aptitudes and that there is extremely weak correlation among them. In his theory of multiple intelligences, he differentiates intelligence into specific modalities rather than anticipating it as dominated by a single general ability. For instance, his theory suggests that a child who understands multiplying effortlessly is not necessarily more intelligence than a child who has more hardship on the same task. Howard work around the theory of multiple intelligences has a reflective impact on practice and thinking in education, particularly in the United States (Adams, 2005). Robert J. Sternberg postulated intelligence model, consisting of three elements of thinking processes maintained in balance by metacognition. He defines intelligence as the ability to attain success in life based on an individual’s personal standards, and within an individual’s socio-cultural context. In his triarchic theory of intelligence, he argues that success is achieved through balance of practical, analytical, and creative abilities. He claims that analytical intelligence is involved when mechanisms of intelligence are used to evaluate, analyze, judge, or compare and contrast (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). In the task of creative intelligence, Robert found that creativity is relatively, however, not wholly, domain-specific. He argues that individuals are frequently creative in some domains, but, not others. He further argues that practical intelligence involves people using their abilities to the kinds of disputes that confront them. Robert’s work has centered on the idea of tacit knowledge. Keith Stanovich refers to intelligence as the algorithmic mind and rational as the reflective mind. In his work, he establishes that the link between the two is low. He argues that many individuals have the equivalent of a prevailing computer inside their mind. However, they are astonishingly poor computer user of that brain power. He further explains that mankind thinking flaws have an evolutionary source (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). The controversies over intelligence testing, what is tested and what the testing mean to the community has not abated since the initial development by Alfred Binet. Some researchers of intelligence testing argue that lower score by particular groups justifies cutting back on welfare and programs. Many experts believe different IQ scores indicate that power and wealth will always be shared unequally. Critics establishes that intelligence testing do not measure intelligence, but rather a certain skill set valued by those who develop IQ tests (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). Various researchers have concluded from twin studies and adaptation studies that intelligence has high heritability. This has been interpreted by general public as meaning that there is immutable genetic factor impacting intelligence. The concept of hereditary explanation, fuels much of the controversy amongst researchers. For instance, books such as The Bell Curve, argues that different ethnic groups have lesser or greater group intelligence that other racial and ethnic groups. James Flynn accepts cultural dissimilarities in intelligence that also factors into controversy. He postulated the idea of the Flynn effect. According to his studies, he argues that intelligence scores have steadily increased since the 1950s. This dissimilarity is steady across a different group of nearly all nations around the globe (Valencia, & Suzuki, 2001). The Flynn effect has profound implication for how an individual think about IQ. For instance, the Flynn effect indicates that black people today have a higher IQ scores than white people of 70 years ago. This difference cannot be genetic as mankind gene pools do not change over such short time. Another good example of intelligence test controversy is the idea of the 11-plus. This idea based on the infamous IQ test. Its supporters such as Cyril Burt believed that IQ tests measured intelligence and that IQ is hereditary. They relied on the false assumption that an individual intelligence is a fixed thing that can be dignified and ranked accordingly. Burt in his work claimed that child’s intelligence is chiefly inherited from their parents and that social circumstances played a minor part. However, after his death evidence began to rise that Burt was a fraudster who simply invented outcomes of his research to fit his theories about heritability of intelligence (Michael & Norton, 2012). Eugenics is the social movement objected to advance the genetic feature of mankind population through selective sterilization and breeding. Eugenic movement played an extensive part in the history and culture of U.S.A prior its involvement in World War II, as it was possible to differentiate superior and inferior elements of the society. Eugenics is a concept originally postulated by Francis Galton following Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution, which tended to describe the development of animal and plant species (Michael & Norton, 2012). Throughout its history, eugenics has remained to be a controversial concept. As a social movement, it reached its greatest popularity in the 20th century. It was practiced globally and was sponsored by government, political leaders, influential researchers and institutions. Most nations postulated various eugenics policies and programs, involving: birth control, genetic screening, marriage restrictions, and segregation. These policies were later considered as coercive, and now few jurisdictions postulate policies that are explicitly labeled as eugenic (Michael & Norton, 2012). The impact of eugenics is well illustrated in the State Boys Rebellion. The four principal characters in the State Boys Rebellion were Freddie, Gordon, Wally, and Foxy. State Boys Rebellion it is a true story of unfortunate young teenagers from Massachusetts who were incarcerated in childhood by imprudent welfare system (Michael & Norton 2012). Underprivileged of adequate education and social prospects with no hope of liberty, the boys struggled to attain normalcy within a cruel and unfriendly surroundings. The true story of how the boys survived state-supported torture, and neglect, their outstanding rebellion and their strong-minded struggle to lead evocative lives as grownups is well told in fascinating detail by Michael D’Antonio. Children were overcrowded, deprived their privacy, and not offered enough security. In Walter E. Fernald school children were abused, neglected and used for scientific research as part of eugenics movement. At this time, eugenic was used to separate individuals regarded to be genetically inferior from the society in order to stop them from reproducing (Michael & Norton, 2012) This being said the question is what can be concluded from the State Boys Rebellion? While many criticize the IQ test as flawed and indicated that youngsters of normal intelligence can become mentally sub-normal in the non-stimulating environment, one can assert that love and affection from adults can raise a child out of feeble-mindedness. The motion to admit orphans including those who are neglected, abused, and abandoned can still make it in life with support from adults (Antonio, 2004). These involve children of relatively normal intelligence. No discussion of inspiration factors in the presentation of individuals with sub-normal intelligence would be complete without talking about the impacts of institutionalization. The institutionalization variable has doubtless filthy more studies in the area of mental disorders than any other single variable. Offered mankind general lack of knowledge concerning the impacts of institutionalization on mankind behavior, the degree of this impurity cannot be defined. The impact of institutionalization on the behavior of individuals with sub-normal intelligence is considerable been suggested by several researchers. In the view of the general consensus regarding the significance of institutionalization, it is fascinating that more work has not been performed to determine its impacts on individual with sub-normal intelligence (Antonio, 2004). Institutional care for the individual with sub-normal intelligence in United States started with the funding of school for feeble minded in Boston by Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe. He argued that children could be trained to stay productive, independent lives. In 1887, the school relocated to the suburb of Waltham, where its inhabitant could learn shop skills and farming and finally graduate into the society (Antonio, 2004). Evidence that institutions for individual with sub-normal intelligence differ in their impacts on behavior has recently been reported by various researchers such as Zigler. Some researchers argue that, for instance, children living in a cold restrictive institution display a higher inspiration for adult support and approval than children staying in an institution experiencing a warm, accepting social environment (Antonio, 2004). Much of this task on inspiration and emotional factors in the performance of individuals with sub-normal intelligence is extremely recent. The study carried out on different factors discussed in this paper is more suggestive than definitive. It is evident, however, that these factors are extremely vital in establishing an individual’s general level of functioning (Antonio, 2004). In addition, these factors appear much more open to environmental influence than do the cognitive process discussed earlier. An upsurge in knowledge regarding inspirational and emotional factors and their ontogenesis and influential holds considerable promise for alleviating much of social ineptitude. This has been showed by that sizable group of individuals who must work at a relatively low intellectual level. In present day, it has become increasingly clear that mankind postulating IQ tests for the institutionalized familial retardates is boosted by considering the inordinate amount of pre-institutional social denial individual with sub-normal intelligence have experienced. A set of recent researches has showed that one result of such early denial is an intensified inspiration to interrelate with a supportive individual with normal intelligence. These researches argue that, offered this intensified inspiration, individual with sub-normal intelligence display significant compliance with instruction when the impact of such compliance is to upsurge or uphold the social relations with the individual with normal intelligence (Antonio, 2004). Does Fernald School experience of the STATE BOYS a misapplication of science born of a genuine aspiration to do good? From the story, it is clearly that this was a misapplication of science born of a genuine aspiration to do best for several reasons. At young ages children were made to believe that their separation from their families while do good for the rest of society. By the introduction of feeble minded program, children were subjected to a rudimentary IQ test and then later on sent to a state institution for the feebleminded in the name of minimizing crime incidences for the best of the entire community. However, there children with relatively normal intelligence endured torture, neglect, terror, and abuse. They lived with no hope of their own freedom (Antonio, 2004). However, this exercise could not be possibly known to the rest of the community. Children of the Fernald State School were subjected to depraved science and a freshly established bureaucracy deliberate to protect America from the so known as hazard of the unintelligent. In the twentieth century, U.S health providers used rudimentary forms of the modern IQ test to recognize allegedly deficient children and lock them away. The concept was to protect society from potential offenders and to stop the so called undesirables getting children and humiliating the American gene pool (Antonio, 2004). Under this unfavorable program that existed in almost all state and continued into 1970s, more than 250,000 kids were detached from their families. Thousands of these kids were not disabled but merely unwelcome orphans, delinquents, or truants. Yet they were deprived proper education, abused and subjected to forced surgical sterilization, shock therapy, lobotomy, and psychotropic drugs (Antonio, 2004). In conclusion, the pursuit of an effective and accurate procedure to compare cognitive abilities in mankind is not new. Long time ago experts used large-scale aptitude to Carry out IQ testing. In the 18th century stories such as the Wild Boy of Averyon has captured mankind imagination concerning the relative dissimilarities between normal and abnormal intellectual development. In the 19th century, the basic was laid for how mankind assess intellectual in the present time. For instance, Francis Galton predicted person’s intellectual capacity via tests of sensory and motor coordination. However, his belief that such capacities were significantly correlated with intelligence was finally determined to be unfounded; therefore, he steered in an age of person individual psychology, and the pursuit of determining intellectual by qualifying traits assumed to be correlated. References Adams, P. (2005). The Bowery Boys: street corner radicals and the politics of rebellion. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. Antonio, M. (2004). The state boys rebellion. New York: Simon & Schuster. Michael J. & Norton J. M. (2012). Eugenics Still Alive and Well in 2012. Thinker. Valencia, R. R., & Suzuki, L. A. (2001). Intelligence testing and minority students: foundations, performance factors, and assessment issues. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. Read More