Criminal Investigation and Psychology - Research Paper Example

? Theories of Crime Introduction Forensic psychology integrates justice system or criminal investigation and psychology with the fundamental objective of understanding crime and delinquency. It involves application of psychological methods, practice, theories, and research in the legal system. Forensic psychologists work in cooperation with law enforcement officers, conduct research, counsel legislators concerning public policy, and function as expert witnesses, among other duties. They play a significant role in the society, particularly in issues concerning crime and delinquency. Furthermore, the understanding of essential topical issues of forensic psychology such as theories of crimes and forensic psychology ethics is important for a competent forensic psychologist. As such, different elements of forensic psychology substantially contribute to an individual or professional’s competence. It is apparent that several psychology theories establish a foundation for understanding delinquency and crime. By addressing delinquency and crime at the individual level, theories of crime attend to individual differences resulting to criminal behavior. In addition, crime theories consider environmental and societal influences attributable to criminal behavior. These theories give a framework that identifies the relationships between an individual, his or her delinquent behavior, and psychological variables. This paper will discuss various theories of crime that relate to forensic psychology. Theories of crime discussed in this paper include learning, personality trait theories, intelligence, psychopathy, social and cognitive developmental, feminism, and differential association theories. Learning Theories Learning theories have an influential effect in the attempts to decipher criminal behaviors. These theories play a central role in understanding crime as well as delinquency. According to differential association theory, criminal behavior takes place in a cultural conflict context characterized with increase of criminal behavior due to association with criminals. As such, crime is learned by relating with criminal definitions. Criminal definitions can either be commonly supporting criminal behavior or be neutralizations substantiating crime in specific or particular circumstances. One of the main causes of crime identified under this theory is association with antisocial peers. This theory was refined and expanded into differential association reinforcement theory that incorporates aspects of social as well as behavioral learning theories. Differential association reinforcement theory posits that differential reinforcement in conjunction with differential association with criminals explains criminal behavior. It emphasizes on operant conditioning use in acquiring or learning criminal behaviors. Operant conditioning refers to the process that an environmental stimulus causes a deliberate reaction, and the reaction is reinforced, negatively or positively, influencing its discontinuation or continuation. By rewarding a particular behavior, there are high chances that it will be continued while failure to reward the behavior results its discontinuation. A behavior pattern ultimately develops resulting to internalization of learned behavioral responses or reactions. Furthermore, differential association theory argues that the potency of criminal conduct depends on the amount, regularity, as well as possibility of its reinforcement. In this sense, criminal behavior is likely to be repetitive, and develop into chronic behavior, if reinforced. In addition, internalized learned norms as well as imitation contribute to the deviant behavior development. The existence of criminal subcultures is attributable to high crime rates and individuals’ tendency to commit crime in a particular area or location (Vito, Maahs, & Holme, 2006). In the contemporary society, it is apparent that peers have an influence on an individual’s behavior. Criminal conducts attract attention, particularly among the youths resulting to increase in delinquency among the peers in order to gain attention associated with such delinquent behavior. As such, interacting with peers considering delinquent behaviors as a means of gaining attention facilitates learning of crime and delinquency. Learning theory principles’ application in criminal investigation and behavior modification has extensive empirical support. The learning perspective of people’s behavior offers a valuable technique for understanding delinquency as well as crime. This is attributable to the applicability of learning theory principles to all behaviors, particularly criminal behavior. By providing a detailed account on the causes and underlying influential factors of behaviors, learning theories creates a framework of deciphering criminal behaviors (Moore, 2011). Personality Trait Theories Personality trait theories relating to forensic psychology elucidate delinquency and crime as an outcome of an individual’s traits or character. They address crime as an externalizing behavior characterizing or signifying internal pathology. Some of these theories are individual trait, and psychodynamic-psychoanalytical theory. Individual trait theory posits that criminals have different psychological as well as biological traits from non-criminals. Criminals have some level of uniqueness based on these traits, which lead to their involvement or engaging in crime. In addition, these traits result to crime in association with the social environment. These biological as well as psychological traits do not act in isolation, but they are influenced by various activities or nature of the society in which an individual lives (Siegel L. J., 2012). Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic-psychoanalytic theory posits that personality is established at young age, and constitutes three distinct elements: the personal identity, the ego, as well as the superego. Personal identity (id) signifies the instinctual drives. In addition, the ego characterizes or signifies implicit social norms, which harness an individual’s identity. The superego refers to various learned moral reasoning. How these elements interact or co-exists in an individual determines his or her behaviors. Psychodynamic-psychoanalytic theory presumes that delinquent behavior emerge due to the imbalance between these elements of personality. Furthermore, delinquent or criminal behavior is considered as a symbolic means of satisfying personal unconscious needs or requirements (Treadwell, 2007) Crime and delinquency usually result from internal conflicts associated with an imbalance between societal norms and the id. The internal conflicts are extremely painful to the extent that they become the unconscious part of the person. As a result, the individual establishes different coping strategies known as defense mechanisms for dealing with internal conflicts. These defense mechanisms are attributable to undesirable personality traits as well as problematic behaviors, including crime and delinquency. In this sense, delinquent behavior is perceived as external manifestation of internal problems or disorders. Crime and delinquency result from adverse internal experiences that lead to development of problematic defense mechanisms manifested in form of delinquent as well as criminal behaviors (Shoemaker, 2005). Psychodynamic-psychoanalytic theory further explains crime as an identity crisis resulting from inner turmoil. The identity crisis explanation limits empirical support for psychoanalytic theory because it is difficult to explain complex, criminal conduct using the theory due to insufficient evidence, and psychoanalytic thought’s circular nature. However, it is apparent that unconscious manifestation of internal conflicts result to criminal as well as delinquent behaviors. In general, personality traits theories seek to identify universal characteristics or characters of delinquents as well as offer frameworks for directing interventions, which may deter people from engaging in crime or demonstrating destructive behaviors (Siegel, Welsh, & Senna, 2006). Social and Cognitive Development Theories Cognitive theory is concerned with mental processes essential for problem solving and understanding various societal as well as global aspects. The procedural approach by Piaget on reasoning and moral development indicates the underlying utility of cognitive theory application in crime. The development stages include concrete operational, egocentric, and formal cognitive operational stage. In the formal cognitive operational stage, an individual is in a position to use abstract thinking, judgment as well as rules to direct a particular circumstance or situation. Piaget’s development stages are related to delinquency and crime forming six development stages, including obedience punishment orientation, interpersonal conformity and accord, self-interest orientation, social-order maintaining orientation, universal ethical principles, and social contract orientation. These stages conclude in individuals’ self-sufficiency to apply personal as well as universal principles in upholding the rights of others (Siegel, Welsh, & Senna, 2006). The developmental tradition has been applied extensively in crime and delinquency studies. One of the influential theories applied is social development model, which justify the development of antisocial and pro-social behaviors through developmental processes in different periods, including high, middle, elementary, and pre-school. The antisocial behavior development is usually collective and rising in direction, which is attributable to the possibility of an individual’s association with antisocial activities, family, and peers to amplify chances of continuing antisocial or deviant behaviors in his or her later development stages. These antisocial interactions as well as behaviors also reduce the chances of take part in constructive peer activities and relationships (Fleming, Catalano, Mazza, Haggerty, & Harachi, 2008). Psychopathy Theories Psychopathy theories typically describe complex and violent criminal behaviors. According to psychopathy theories, complex and unrelenting crime as well as delinquency is an external or outward expression or manifestation of mental disorder. These theories differ from personality theories in that they focus on a number of distinct traits and constitute a disorder, while personality trait theories focus on individual traits. In the context of psychopathy theories, criminal behavior is explained through an antisocial personality disorder called psychopathy. Furthermore, reinforcement sensitivity theory uses a biological approach to explain crime and delinquency. It views crime as a condition developed by a chemical imbalance or disorder. A psychiatric disorder, antisocial personality disorder, has been analyzed to determine its relationship with crime as well as delinquency. Based on its criteria, the disorder constitutes violation pattern of people’s rights characterized by law-breaking activities, which start at early age or early adolescence. Psychopathy is a socially distressing personality illness with a collection of interpersonal, affective, as well as behavioral characteristics, such as possibility to contravene legal and social norms as well as expectations. The emotional or interpersonal characteristics of psychopathy associated with delinquency include lack of empathy, grandiose, superficial, and egocentric traits. In addition, social deviance characteristics include need for excitement, lack of responsibility impulsive, antisocial behavior, and poor behavior control. As such, delinquent and criminal behavior is considered as a feature of psychopathy disorder. It is argued that adequate or reliable identification of psychopaths in the society can assist in the establishment of interventions for desisting or preventing behaviors related to the disorder. The biological perspective of crime and delinquency indicated that delinquents have less ability to adhere to stipulated social expectation as well as norms compared to non-delinquents, and their traits may result to extraversion as well as fundamental personality traits in the criminal (Moore, 2011). Reinforcement sensitivity theory indicates introverts as sensitive to non-reward as well as punishment, and difficult to be conditioned under societal norms as well as expectations. Because of the sensitivity to non-reward and punishment, it is possible to reduce delinquent behaviors in the society, particularly among the introverts. Reinforcement sensitivity theory also posits that introversion has a physiological basis comprising orbital inhibitory system of hippocampus, medial septal as well as frontal cortex, and ascending reticular activating system. In essence, psychopathy theories identify individuals with criminal as well as delinquent behaviors by gathering personality characteristics and connecting these characteristics to behavior. Some of the disorders that these theories address include psychopathy, personality disorder, and delinquent behavior (Moore, 2011). Feminism theory or Feminist Perspectives Feminism theory focuses on victimization of women, and considers the issue of gender inequality. In criminology, feminism theory constitutes several elements, which include sex or gender as a fundamental systematizing principle in social life, and acknowledgment of the significance of authority in determining social relations. Furthermore, feminist perspectives comprise the sensitivity to social context influence on individuals’ behavior, and recognize the social reality. They focus on political devotion to societal change, ethical choices, and openness as well as creativity in causation and prevalence of crime in the society (Vito, Maahs, & Holme, 2006). Feminist perspectives are categorized into liberal feminism, radical feminism, Marxist feminism, post-modern feminism, and socialist feminism. Liberal feminism considers gender function in socialization as the chief cause of the oppression directed towards women. The social roles of men such as violence and competitive are highly regarded in the society than women’s roles such as being passive and nurturing. Furthermore, liberal feminists highlight political, economic, legal as well as social equality in the society. Regarding the criminology perspective, liberal feminists view behaviors of female criminals as a resultant reaction of gender role socialization. This implies that women commit crime at a lower rate compared to men since their socialization provides fewer opportunities to take part in deviant behaviors (White, Haines, & Asquith, 2012). Socialist feminism integrates Marxist and radical perspectives, and attributes women’s oppression to associated class as well as sex-based inequalities. As such, class and gender work together form the society. In the context of criminology, socialist feminism considers causes of crime as resultant effects of the interaction between class and gender-based systems of authority. Furthermore, post-modern feminism argues against the existence of universal concepts as well as fixed category for multiple truths. In criminology, it cross-examines the social construction of various notions, including deviance, crime as well as justice, and disputes some of the accepted criminological truths (Treadwell, 2007). Radical feminism highlights male dominance or patriarchy as the main aspect attributable to oppression of women. In this sense, discrimination against women occurs because social interactions as well as social relations are fashioned by male dispensation and power. Radical feminists in criminology focus on contribution and existence of patriarchy in various offences against women, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment. It also affirms that participation or involvement of women crime is usually because of prior victimization, normally perpetrated by men. According to Marxist feminism, oppression of women is attributable to their inferior social status or class. The capitalist nature of contemporary societies determines class along with gender relations, which inconvenience women because they are grouped in the working class as opposed to the ruling class. Criminology Marxist feminism hypothesizes that the inferior class status of women may force them to participate in, or commit, crime in order to support themselves economically (White, Haines, & Asquith, 2012). Crime can only be understood by taking the aspect of gender into consideration. The feminists’ ideologies purport that crimes committed by women are attributable mainly on societal influences. Based on their arguments, crime is fashioned by various social experiences in addition to power employed by both men and women. One of the aspects that form gender-related experiences as well as societal power is patriarchy. In the society, men are likely to use crime as a means of exercising control over women as well as demonstrating masculinity. This is supported by various societal ideals related to masculinity. Besides, women may be forced to engage in crime in the attempts to counter various negative and oppressive deeds exercised against their will in the society. Intelligence Theories Crime and delinquency has a relationship with intelligence, although the feasibility of such association has been widely debated by scholars. There are emphases on the influence of IQ on crime and delinquency amid other significant risk factors as well as accounts of criminal and delinquent conduct. The nature of relationship between intelligence and delinquency has been studied to determine whether it is indirect and mediated or direct and casual. Several studies indicated that delinquents as well as criminals have lower IQs compared to non-delinquents. They also revealed a correlation between an individual’s demographic characteristics with criminal conducts. Intelligence does not solely dictate an individual’s possibility to engage in crime or delinquency. In addition, the relationship between delinquency and IQ is presumably indirect. In particular, IQ affects several mediating factors, including psychological well-being, effect of deviant peer pressure, and self-control. As a result, IQ influences delinquent behavior through these factors because they determine an individual’s susceptibility to engage in crime as well as delinquency. It is apparent that IQ effects on delinquency result from the indirect link of mediating factors to individuals’ behaviors. Although there are disparities on the relationship between deviance and intelligence, substantial effects of IQ level on an individual’s behavior are evident in the society (Moore, 2011). Differential Association Theory Edwin H. Sutherland developed the above mentioned theory to give an explanation as to how criminals act in a deviant way. Furthermore, Sutherland finalized that criminal and delinquent behaviors are considered as normal social behaviors gradually because of society’s failure to detest individuals’ involvement in such deviant or delinquent behaviors. Differential association theory posits that acquirement of criminal behavior is similar to learning other personal behavior; acquiring deviant or criminal behaviors does not involve unique learning processes. Criminal behaviors are cultured in the course of social interaction as well as observation, just as societal norms. This theory supports the principle that an individual associating with peers favoring criminal behaviors than those favoring societal norms is more inclined to engage in, or have criminal or delinquent behavior. Sutherland’s approach suggest that people ought to consider multiple factors, which include more than the criminal’s ethnic background, class as well as race (Siegel L. J., 2012). Conclusion Forensic psychology applies psychological methods, practice, theories, and research in the legal system. It applies several criminology theories, which explain the association, causes, and influential factors of criminal and delinquent behaviors. Furthermore, criminological theories elucidate and verify individuals’ behaviors as well as choices from varying perspectives. Different theories provide reasons why crime occurs, and why individuals take part in criminal activities. As noted, criminology theories used in forensic psychology include learning, personality trait, intelligence, psychopathy, social and cognitive developmental, feminism, and differential association theory. It is apparent that most elements of criminal justice are founded on criminological theories. Besides, forensic psychologists rely on theories of crime to address various issues of criminal justice and legal system. Although criminology theories do not explicitly guarantee effectiveness in crime and justice, they enhance the understanding of criminal behaviors. As a result, theories of crime assist in averting various misconceptions concerning individuals’ involvement or participation in crime, and facilitate the enforcement of appropriate interventions of minimizing crime in the society. References Fleming, C. B., Catalano, R. F., Mazza, J. J., Haggerty, K. P., & Harachi, T. W. (2008). After-school activities, misbehavior in school, and delinquincy from the end of elementary school through the beginning of high school: A test of social development model hypotheses. Journal of Early Adolescence , 28 (2), 277-303. Moore, M. (2011). Psychological Theories of Crime and Delinquency. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment , 21, 226–239. Shoemaker, D. J. (2005). Theories of deliquency: An examination of explanations of deliquent behavior. New York: Oxford University Press. Siegel, L. J. (2012). Criminology: Theories,Patterns& Typologies. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Siegel, L. J., Welsh, B. C., & Senna, J. J. (2006). Juvenile delinquency: Theory, practice and law. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Treadwell, J. (2007). Criminology. Los Angeles: Sage. Vito, G. F., Maahs, J. R., & Holme, R. M. (2006). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. White, R., Haines, F., & Asquith, N. (2012). Crime and Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Read More