What Kinds of Political Systems Have Existed Worldwide - Literature review Example

Name: xxxxxxxxxxxxx Course: xxxxxxxxxxxxx Institution: xxxxxxxxxxxxx Title: Political Systems Date: xxxxxxxxxxxxx Political Systems Introduction According to Derbyshire and Derbyshire (1990), the political system of a country consists of more than the formal institutions of governance. A political system also includes the informal processes involved in balancing the demands and responses of politics and the dynamic interplay between people’s interests and ideas. This definition of a political system implies that it is not limited to the form of government, whether representative or dictatorial, but also includes social and economic processes entailed. This is due to the fact that most political systems are founded on an ideological basis such as Communism from Marxist ideology. Subsequently, most political systems have certain discernible economic and social correlates (Derbyshire & Derbyshire 1990). Empirical evidence has shown that economic systems cannot be changed without first changing political systems. This was evidenced by the introduction of capitalism in many countries after the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1990. In turn, implies shifts in the societal values which prevailed beforehand to values needed to sustain the new political and economic order. Therefore political systems have social and economic correlates. This paper analyses some of the most common political systems in the world and their social and economic correlates (Derbyshire & Derbyshire 1990).The paper will introduce each political system, offer a brief analysis of its mechanisms and principles and then identify the features of social and economic systems within each political system or which correlate with the political system. Democracy The most common political system in the contemporary world is democracy. Democracy is a political system founded on the philosophy of individual freedoms and liberties and representative government. A quote that best sums up the form of government propagated by democracy can be drawn from former American president Abraham Lincoln’s speech at Gettysburg in which he described representative democracy as “a government of the people, by the people for the people” (Andrain 1994). A democracy is thus a political system in which individual rights take precedence and a true measure of any democracy is often the extent to which individual rights and liberties are safeguarded by the state. It is estimated that about a third of the global population is currently under democracies. This makes democracy the most common or popular political system globally. Democracies are characterized by a set of discernible features. First, a democracy must have representative institutions based on majority rule. The most common representative institution in a democracy is parliament or the legislature. These institutions are legitimized through free and fair elections under the principle of universal suffrage as they are meant to serve as an aggregation of public will within a political party system. Secondly, a democracy must be characterized by substantial limitations to the power of government (Andrain 1994). These limitations must have legal basis in society. The society must thus be pluralistic where the government exists alongside competing interests. Thirdly, the government in a democracy is accountable to the electorate. This is usually reflected in legal provisions for regular and periodic elections. Fourth, a democracy must uphold the individual freedoms of the electorate most importantly the freedom to expression which implies tolerance to divergent views. A democracy must also have separation of power within government and an independent civil service to ensure effective governance and to minimize interference of politics in other public spheres (Derbyshire and Derbyshire 1990). The economic correlate of democracies is capitalism. Capitalism in economics is the equivalent of Democracy in Politics and Government. Capitalism can also be used to refer to social systems which uphold the principle of individual political, social and economic rights. Capitalism is an economic ideology founded on the works of British economist Adam Smith from his most famous 1884 publication The Wealth of Nations (Kendall 2007). A capitalist system advocates for private ownership of the means of production such as land for the sole purpose of generating profit. In a capitalist society, the free market operates through an invisible hand which controls the prices of goods and services and determines what is to be produced and how it should be distributed. The invisible hand refers to the forces of demand and supply. More comparisons than contrasts can be drawn between capitalism as a social and economic ideology and democracy. In democracy, the vote of the electorate determines who shall occupy public office based on their policies and indirectly influences public policy which is the outcome of a political system. In a capitalist society, the equivalent of the vote is money. For example, the dollar determines what is to be produced in the United States. Capitalism operates under the principle of laissez-faire or the free market where the government’s intervention in economics is limited or the state is separated from the market (Kendall 2007). Proponents of capitalism believe that the market should be left to its own devices and that the invisible hand will lead to efficient allocation of goods and services. Concurrently, democracy advocates for the protection of individual rights and freedoms. It is thus no coincidence that capitalism is the operational economic ideology in democratic political systems. Capitalist systems are also characterized by a high degree of freedom in social values by protection of individual social rights. In democracies for example, freedom of religion is upheld where the public are allowed to subscribe to the beliefs that they find most suitable. Capitalist societies are also marked by a wider range of choices in music, sports and dress or fashion. The underlying principle in capitalism is thus the upholding and protection of individual political, social and economic rights. Totalitarianism Totalitarianism refers to a political system where the state actively seeks to control all or most aspects of the people’s lives (Kendall 2007). The most common illustration of totalitarian systems is communism and its generic offshoot socialism. Communism or Socialism can be defined as socio-political forms of governance that are essentially based on common ownership of property by the community or the state. In these systems of governance social and economic organizations are controlled by an autocratic state that is governed by a self-perpetuating and a single political party (Resnick & Wolff 2006). One of the key differences between communism and socialism is that socialism generally revolves around economic systems whereas communism revolves around both economic and political systems. In socialism, the economy is managed through collective and deliberate social control. On the other hand, communism manages both social and economic systems by ensuring collective ownership of property and a centralized distribution of property so as to actualize statelessness and classlessness. Communism and socialism are based on the principle of that the means of production should be owned and controlled collectively by a centralized organization. Nevertheless, socialism asserts that the distribution should be carried out in accordance to the amount of effort put by individuals in the process of production. Conversely, communism asserts that distribution of resources should be based on the needs of individuals (Kaufmann 2005). Communist political systems are built on the ideology of Marxism from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Specifically, Marx’s publication Das Kapital, which critiques capitalism and calls for a revolution of the proletariat, is considered to be the communist bible (Derbyshire and Derbyshire 1990). Subsequently, this ideology was adapted by Vladimir Lenin and his counterparts in order to meet the needs of Russia in the early twentieth –century, thus communism operates in a Marxism worldview. In reference to Marxist sentiments, communism is an ideal that is actualized when private property rights and class differences have been eradicated and the state becomes redundant. The Soviet Union can be regarded as an ideal model of a communism system. Revolution first occurred in the developing Russia in October 1917, this revolution was a wartime coup instigated by Lenin, an affiliate of the “white-collar intelligentsia.” Reasons behind the formation of the coup revolved around Lenin’s Imperialism theory. This revolution however failed to occur thus forcing the Soviet Union to build on socialism in the course of the interwar period. Following the end of the Second World War new regimes of communism have been established. Most of these regimes are found in the conservative second and third world countries in Asia and Eastern Europe. Just as in the case of the Soviet Union these regimes were enforced through military force or guerilla liberation struggles (Derbyshire & Derbyshire 1990) Presently, proponents of Marxism agree that most communist systems around the world have not realized the ideal nature of communism since intermediate socialism remains rooted in the contemporary communist systems. Derbyshire & Derbyshire (1990) observe that in these countries, the Communist Party dominates state institutions in order to protect the socialist society prior to the advent of the ideal communism. Nonetheless, in reference to the Marxist terms the Soviet Union subscribes to be the ideal system of communism in the world. Communist countries such as China, Yugoslavia and Cuba have significantly departed from the Soviet Union model of communism by adapting the different paths of socialism (Derbyshire & Derbyshire 1990). The economy and society in a communist political system are thus controlled or regulated on the basis of Marxist ideals which seek to establish a classless society. In the Soviet Union, for example, the Communist Party regulated political activity, economic production and even diffusion of ideas in society. Monarchy One of the earliest documented political systems in history is monarchy. Monarchy principally refers to a political system where power or authority is vested in one person or family and is passed on from one generation of rulers to another on lines of inheritance (Stefof 2007). In monarchies, the head of state or government rules for life and upon their demise are succeeded only by members of the royal family. Monarchies thus leave little or no room for public participation in electing leaders since the position is hereditary regardless of the leader’s attributes. Monarchies are often based on divinity where it is believed that leadership is a divine right. There are various strands of monarchy in the contemporary world. These include constitutional monarchy such as in Britain or absolute monarchy such as in Swaziland or Saudi Arabia (Kendall 2007). In constitutional monarchies, the royal family provides a ceremonial head of state while the country is governed by elected officials under the head of state. The most popular example in this category is the United Kingdom where an elected Prime Minister serves under the government of Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth 2. In absolute monarchies, the head of state monopolizes state power. A common feature of absolute monarchies is the complete predominance of the royal family or ruler in all matters political, social and economic. These include modern day states such as Swaziland and Saudi Arabia or historically the French under Louis XVI (Kendall 2007). Historically, society under monarchies was formed around feudal groups or tribes. Under feudalism, the ruling family or ruling class distributed resources along lines of patronage to Lords, Dukes and Counts. The ruling family exercised authority through these groups by delegating power to feudal lords such as Lords in Britain who were the bona fide landowners in the kingdoms. Economic production was thus organized around them with the population working as peasants to earn enough money for subsistence while the Lords and landlords retained the surpluses as wealth. In absolute monarchies, society is organized along a class system whereby privileges are automatic to members of certain families (Stefof 2007). Even in constitutional monarchies, the ruling family has almost unrestricted access to economic resources regardless of the country’s economic state of affairs. In a monarchy, the political, economic and social interests of the ruling elite are paramount with little checks or balances unlike democracies where individual freedoms take precedence. Subjects live to serve the king or queen. Authoritarianism or Dictatorship Authoritarianism describes a political system under the control of a ruler or rulers who specifically seek deny the public participation in politics. Absolute monarchies and dictatorships are the most common manifestation of authoritarianism in the world. Under a dictatorship, power is often seized forcibly and the ruler relies on coercion as the primary tool of governance. Dictators often impose their personal values on government and require the backing of the military, police and business elite to stay in power. In authoritarian political systems, society and the economy are often molded around one leader’s personal values or whims. In North Korea, for example, Kim Jong Il rules through decrees which are enforced by the military. Authoritarian regimes may also be based on governmental forms such as military juntas which assume control over the country’s political and economic systems. In authoritarian systems, the socio-economic features of society thus depend on the preferences or whims of the ruling elite (Derbyshire and Derbyshire 1990). Conclusion A political system is consisted of more than the formal structures of government in a society. Political systems also include social and economic systems which reflect how society is organized and the interplay between people’s ideas and interests. This can be attributed to the fact that political systems are founded upon ideologies which encompass the political as well as social and economic organization of society. Therefore, every political system will have its social and economic correlates or features of society which mirror those of the form of government. The political systems of the world can be categorized into four groups; democracy, totalitarianism, monarchy and authoritarianism. The most popular political system globally is democracy. Democratic political systems are characterized by social and economic capitalism as the ideology which emphasizes individual freedoms. Totalitarianism, on the other hand, encompasses political systems which seek to control every aspect of political, social and economic life. The most common form of totalitarianism is communism based on Marxist ideology. Monarchy is based on the divine belief on hereditary leadership and is often correlated with feudal systems where subjects exist to serve the ruler. Authoritarian political systems are systems where public participation is effectively curtailed by a leader or group of leaders who impose their ideologies on society. Dictatorships or absolute monarchies are examples of authoritarian systems. The social and economic features of such societies reflect the personal inclination or whims of the ruling elite or ruler and as a result society is modeled around what they perceive to be suitable such as religious values. Bibliography Andrain, C., F., 1994, Comparative Political Systems: policy performance and social change, M.E Sharpe, New York. Derbyshire, J. & Derbyshire, I., 1990, Political Systems of the World, Allied Publishers, New Delphi. Kaufmann, R., 2005, Socialism and Communism in their practical application, Kessinger Publishing, New York. Kendall, D., 2007, Sociology in our Times, sixth edition, Thomson Wadworth, Belmont. Resnick, S., & Wolff, R., 2006, New departures in the Marxian theory, Taylor and Francis, New York. Stefof, R., 2007, Monarchy (Political Systems of the World), Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, New York. Read More