Civil War in Former Yugoslavia - Term Paper Example

CIVIL WAR IN FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1992-1995) by Student’s name Code+ course name Professor’s name University name City, State Date Contents Contents 2 1. Introduction 3 2. Bosnian Genocide 4 3. Proponents of Bosnia’s Recovery 5 4. Political Reconstruction 7 a. Montenegro 7 b. Bosnia and Herzegovina 7 c. Croatia 8 d. Kosovo 8 e. Macedonia 9 f. Serbia 10 g. Slovenia 12 h. Review of Current Situation in Former Yugoslavia 12 5. Economic Reconstruction 13 6. Social and Cultural Reconstruction 13 7. Healing the Nation 15 8. Conclusion 16 9. References 17 10. Appendix 21 Maps of Bosnia 21 1. Introduction Many countries face internal conflicts that tend to slow their development. These conflicts are often caused by ideological differences among the citizens of the countries. At times, the conflict can erupt into a full scale civil war claiming lots of lives as was the case in US and other countries. The conflict can also spill over to neighboring countries causing tension in neighboring countries as was the case in Congo Crisis (Wanki 2011, p.107). When such conflicts spill, there was regional war that caused instability among the parties involved. The main powers behind these domestic conflicts were foreign powers that backed various groups against the others. This approach was common during the cold war as the world super powers tried to compete for supremacy. This at times led to loss of civilian lives at the hands of militias. The suffering and economic degeneration caused by these wars was also untold. This further led to political instability and debts which were incurred during the war. In addition, people were tried for war crimes in the international courts. However, these countries were involved in economic recovery after the war which helped them grow economically. The aim of this paper is to discuss the genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The account of the genocide will be discussed, the aftermath and the process of recovery from the effects of the genocide. The genocide is one of the worst happenings in Europe in the twentieth century. 2. Bosnian Genocide The war in Yugoslavia’s Bosnia was fought along ethnical and religious lines (Malcolm 2014). The genocide had been carried out to revenge injustices carried out in some years back in Yugoslavian history (Mojzes 2014). During and after the war, the Yugoslavian republic broke up into various states. As Brunner and Johnson (2007) point out, Tito ensured stability of Yugoslavia between 1940 and 1980. As he used military rule, crisis was pending and would erupt soon as nationalism grew (Mirkovic 1996, p.193). However, he died in 1980. In May 1992, Milosevic the president of Federal Yugoslavian Republic (Allcock 2015) triggered the dark war in Bosnia. He masterminded attack of Bosniaks in Eastern part of Yugoslavia (History.com 2009). This act began ethnical cleansing with the main target as the Muslims, the Bosniaks (Sells 1997). Morjes (2013, p. 8-9) views Bosniaks as the causalities of the war. From July of 1995, Serbs massacred many Bosniaks in Srebrenica, a refugee camp (Smith 2014). To hide evidence of the massacre, graves were ploughed and bodies moved by tankers away from the site. However, the bodies were relocated and evidenced compiled on the massacre. As NATO joined, Bosniaks began getting a upper hand in the war (Clinton 2013). Clinton, the US president sent representatives to foster a peace deal in the region. On 14th September 1995, Ratko Mladic and Rodan Karadzik agreed to end the Sarajevo siege under pressure from Holbrooke. This was the first step towards end of war in Bosnia. Holbrooke continue to mediate in the war. On December the same year, the leaders of Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia signed the Dayton Agreement in Paris, France. It was witnessed by world leaders who were to ensure protection of these states. This marked the end of the four years’ war. 3. Proponents of Bosnia’s Recovery There have been a number of powers that pushed for the change of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and consequential reconstruction. These powers included individual states and the international community. The United Nations, European Community and NATO participated as the main forces behind the recovery of former Yugoslavia. United Nations was the main force behind reconstruction of former Yugoslavia. As an international body responsible for world peace, UN became the first power to enter into the conflict. Through its forces the UNPROFOR (United Nations Protection Forces), it tried to monitor the situation in former Yugoslavia. However, these forces seemed incapable of the situation. This was complicated due to the UN charter which did not favor one section against another during wars. Their peace keepers were often attacked making the situation worse. During massacre at Srebrenica, Dutch UN peace keeping forces were attacked. They therefore could not offer support to the Bosniaks as a result. This led to massive murder calling for intervention of another force. European Community, the forerunner of European Union was another force that was involved in reconstruction of former Yugoslavia. Juncas (2005) views this force as a civil institution that did not want to resolve to military power to solve disputes. The activities of this group were more diplomatic than the UN. Juncas continues to argue that this force wanted to solve the European matters without the intervention of US terming it as the era of Europe. Through diplomacy, this institution achieved more than the UN. However, the process was slow compared to NATO. Brioni Agreement of 1991 was signed in Slovenia creating a ceasefire. However, the activities of UN were laundered more than those of EC. However, from 1999, it adopted military approach to solving crisis. This was after it changed from EC to European Union. It still supports the peace and reconstruction in former Yugoslavia up to date. North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO) was another force that helped reconstruct former Yugoslavia. NATO entered into Yugoslavia after the Srebrenica incidence (Pumphrey 2011). This force was more violent than the other two. It involved military power to bring the Serbs into surrender. Various air strikes were carried out in Yugoslavia and the Serbs suffered heavy losses. NATO supported Bosniaks leading to the Bosniaks having an upper hand in the war. As a result, Serbs began experiencing defeat in the war. It is the attacks of NATO that led to Dayton Agreement being signed leading to the end of the war of Yugoslavia. The contribution of NATO in former Yugoslavia was the ending of the war. Their attacks led to deterioration of the economy of the region as many assets were destroyed during the fighting. Unlike EC, NATO did not go for peace but employment of military power to suppress military power. However, its results were immediate as they marked the end of four years’ war in Yugoslavia. NATO forces were the US and Canada. EC viewed this as interference in domestic issues by the western powers although they worked together. 4. Political Reconstruction The genocide of Yugoslavia led to disintegration of the region into seven countries as Laurent (2011) suggests. Each republic had its president and assembly. These states were broken mainly among the ethnical lines marking the end of the Communist Yugoslavia. Each of these countries is discussed below. a. Montenegro Initially, Montenegro was part of Serbia during the first break away in 1992. The republic was called Serbia and Montenegro. It became a sovereign state in 2006 and was recognized as a member of UN. b. Bosnia and Herzegovina It was among the initial three republics created after Dayton Agreement. This is a complex government with two republics. These include the Republika Srpska which consist Serbians and Bosniak Croat Federation which consists the Croatians. However, there is overall government which is in charge of national policies. Brčko District which was part of the republic is now under international supervision as a sovereign state. c. Croatia Croatia was among the three republics formed during Dayton Agreement. It has historical relations with the central of Europe and was a part of empire of Austria-Hungary. After the fall of the empire during World War 2, Croatia came a Nazi control and sided with Axis powers of the war. In 1990s, it was involved in Yugoslavian war pushing Serbians out of its republic. These Serbians wanted to annex parts of Croatia. This war ended in 1995 following Dayton Agreement. It annexed Eastern Slovenia in 1998 expanding its size. Currently, it is applying for EU membership. It is also a member of NATO since 2006 enjoying a good rapport with the US. After the war, it is one of the states of former Yugoslavia enjoying peace and political stability. d. Kosovo This new landlocked state was part of Serbia which was among the three initial republics formed from Yugoslavia after Dayton Agreement. Kosovo attained independence from Serbia on 17th February 2008. The country has scarcity of resources and relies on aid from US. Therefore, it is an affiliate of IMF and World Bank. Spinner-Halev (2012, p.67) views this republic as the Jerusalem of Serbia. This is because the republic has a rich account of Serbian history. Since medieval age, it had been the stronghold of empire of Serbia. Many shrines were created in this republic at that time. Kosovo Battle of 1389 was fought here. In this battle, Serbia lost to Turks of Ottoman. The immigration and growth of Albanian community flourished in Kosovo. As the Albanian community grew, they demanded for equity in government. Before Yugoslavian war, Slobodan Milosevic who was the Serbian leader, masterminded massive persecution of Albanians. Many lost their lives, became refugees or were wounded. This led to NATO intervention. Serbian soldiers withdrew from Kosovo however they still controlled it. In 2008, its legislature declared its independence from Serbia. e. Macedonia It is southern part of former Yugoslavia. Macedonia declared independence in 1991 before the Yugoslavian war. Its name, Macedonia, was discontented by Greece due to link in Grecian history. (King Philip II was from Macedonia and had been the founder of united Grecian empire with his son Alexander the Great.) They resulted to use of adding Former Yugoslav Republic as the prefix of the name. However, it is referred as Macedonian Republic despite the unresolved naming crisis. During the formative years of the republic foreign relations were strained due to an embargo by Greece. However, things have improved of late. Macedonia consists of two major ethnics, the Macedonians who are more than four fifths and Albanians who are nearly a quarter. Ohrid Framework Agreement which was made in 2001 made Macedonia a bicultural republic unlike other states of former Yugoslavia. The majorities have a veto on the official language. Corruption and other inhuman acts like human trafficking are affecting the country. However, it has a good rapport with the USA. f. Serbia Serbia was the mother republic of Yugoslavia. Serbia has been in the international limelight for over two centuries. It existed as early as 1811 as kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. This was after it became independent from the Ottoman Empire. It was in the limelight in First World War with Yugoslavia with a name change in 1929. During World War 2, Josip Broz led the country against Nazis becoming the leader of Yugoslavia. He made it a communist republic that challenged supremacy of Russia. However, Yugoslavia was not involved directly in cold war as it was in Non-Aligned Movement. At his rule, Yugoslavia had political stability due to military rule. However, he died in 1981 leading to a period of instability. In 1989 under leadership of Milosevic, Yugoslavia broke due to his policies which were engineered toward Serbian domination. This led to disintegration and declaration of independence by various republics of the communist Yugoslavia. Federal Yugoslavia was formed in 1992 which had Serbia and Montenegro with Milosevic as president. He envisioned a Greater Serbia and used military force to achieve his dream. He thought use of military would unite Serbians in the Balkans. After Yugoslavian war, he used military to suppress unrests in Kosovo. As a result, many civilians lost their lives, were maimed or became refugees. Many were also evicted from the area. NATO swept in to save the situation. Serbia was bombed as a result leading to retreat of Serbia from Kosovo. Later, disciplined forces were withdrawn from Kosovo while NATO ensured their presence there. This led to independence of Kosovo from Serbia in 2008. Milosevic’s dream of Greater Serbia came to a halt. Montenegro broke from the republic and became independent after Kosovo. This meant that the heart of Serbian heritage, Kosovo was lost from Serbia. Serbia faced political problems as years progressed. However, the president since 2004, Boris Tadic has brought stability and peace in the country. It is one of troublous country of the former Yugoslavia that is always represented in the negative side. g. Slovenia Slovenia has a rich history in Western Europe. It had been in Roman, Hapsburg and Austria-Hungary empires. After dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1919, it formed a kingdom together with Serb and Croatia. This became Communist Yugoslavia in 1929. It declared independence from Serbia in 1991. Slovenia is one of advanced economies of former Yugoslavia. It is affiliated to NATO and EU. This has greatly led to its stability and economic progression. However, there are unsolved border issues with Croatia. Despite this, there exists a good rapport between the two republics. h. Review of Current Situation in Former Yugoslavia Yugoslavia had been created from proposals of Wilson, US president in 1919. The country has faced any political transitions. In 1991, the country began a long journey to collapse of Yugoslavia. A bloody war ensued with ethnic cleansing. However, the region has recovered from these dark memories. The political situation in the region is stabilizing. Foreign powers should not interfere with sovereignty of these new states. This is because they might frustrate reconstruction process hindering political advancement. They should only act as observers with passive roles rather than active roles. 5. Economic Reconstruction The Yugoslavian war led to economic degradation in Bosnia and the rest of Yugoslavia. As MacDowall (2015) argues, the situation in former Yugoslavia was terrible. The recovery process faced many challenges. These were based on the political policies of Bosnia. This made it lag behind other Yugoslavian republics. The recovery process began with Dayton Agreement. According to the Agreement, Bosnia was to have their currency, a central bank and strong system of economy (Hacioglu and Dincer 2013, p.15). This ensured that the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina began working on its recovery process immediately after the end of the war. In addition aid for reconstruction and development of the republic began flowing in 1996 (Portland Trust 2009, p.6). These included NGOs, World Bank, EBRD, EU and IMF. Recovery process was enhanced by support of foreign donors who initiated projects in Bosnia. The current economy is experiencing a positive growth and soon it will return to the levels before the war. 6. Social and Cultural Reconstruction Provision of justice for crimes committed during war is the first step towards social reconstruction in a society. Through justice, people are able to accept the reality and feel at peace. They can therefore forgive their tormentors and accept them back knowing that justice prevailed. This leads to a peaceful coexistence and national integration adhering to law. Many injustices and mass killings had been done during the war period in Bosnia. To initiate a social and cultural reconstruction, justice had to be done. It is on this note that the United Nations formed International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in 1993. ICTY was formed to ensure that the war crimes committed were accounted and justice had been done (Szamuely 2011, p.153). The court carried out civil education on its importance processes. Court officials began carrying out investigations on the war crimes and allegations. Issues of arrest were made and war criminals were taken to Hague such as Milosevic. Fair trials were conducted in The Hague and those found guilty were imprisoned. This activity ensured that justice had finally been met on war crimes. The Bosniaks, Croatians and Serbians were able to live in peace as one nation in Bosnia. The respect to law and constitution ensured that the dark days were not repeated. Further, the presence of NATO soldiers helped stabilize the region. ICTY has been the main force behind social reconstruction. Serbia and Dutch were found guilty in some instances. Dutch was to compensate some Bosniaks for failing to protect them during peace keeping. Currently, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a peaceful country that even participates in UN peace keeping missions. Cultural integration and diversity is accepted and appreciated. It has tried to forget the dark days by enhancing peace among the citizens. 7. Healing the Nation When war is fought, the causalities and those who fight in it undergo various challenges. Due to the events in the war, people often suffer from traumas (Akesson 2005, p.34). The psychological suffering undergone by the causalities needs to be addressed early enough to prevent further complexities and ensure recovery. During the wars in Bosnia, children, parents and citizens observed as their parents were raped, killed and others deported. These happenings always haunted the memories of the causalities. After the war, it was hard for the refugees to cope with new life. Strange dreams and memories always affected them. For those who underwent rape, they felt self-rejection and shame. To aid in recovering from traumas, NGOs began carrying out rehabilitation programs on the citizens. Among them is CATH which helps young people and children forget dark memories and cope with the new life. In addition, there are various workshops and functions held across Bosnia to help citizens adapt to the new life. These approaches have helped Bosnians to move on with life after the war. 8. Conclusion Yugoslavia has a rich history from mediaeval age to the cotemporary age. It has faced many challenges as a region. Of the worst events is the ethnical cleansing which occurred between 1991 and 1995. During this period, the communist Yugoslavia disintegrated, few years after the death of the founder and strongman Marshall Tito. The cleansing led to massive murder of many people particularly Bosniaks. The darkest episode of the war was Srebrenica Massacre where many Bosniaks were killed in Srebrenica. Their bodies were moved away from the scène to hide evidence. The entry of NATO into the scene led to signing of Dayton Agreement which marked the end of war. A tribunal was formed that tried war criminals in The Hague, Netherlands. This brought justice to the weary souls and peace to the causalities of the massacre. Bosnia and Herzegovina is currently undergoing a recovery and national healing. The growth is encouraging and soon the country will regain its lost glory. Conflicts and wars are a great setback for any country. Citizens and international organizations should try to prevent the occurrence of these calamities instead of healing from their occurrence. This will ensure that stability is always ensured and peaceful coexistence among the citizens is nurtured. 9. References 1. Akesson, Bree. (2005). ‘War is not the Only Trauma: Rethinking Psychosocial Healing in Complex Emergencies.’ Journal of Student Social Work [E-journal] 3, p.34. Retrieved 26 January 2015 from http://cswr.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/2005_vol3_pg34_akesson.pdf. 2. Allcock, John B. (2014). ‘Slobodan Milosevic.’ Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 28 January, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383076/Slobodan-Milosevic. 3. Ana E Juncos, Ana E. (2005). ‘The EU’s Post-Conflict Intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina: (re)Integrating the Balkans and/or (re)Inventing the EU?’ Southeast European Politics [E-journal] 6(2), pp. 88-108. Retrieved 28 January 2015 from http://www.seep.ceu.hu/archives/issue62/juncos.pdf. 4. Brunner, Borgan and Johnson, David. (2007). ‘From World War I to Splintering of the Country.’ Infoplease. [Online]. Retrieved 27 January 2015 from http://www.infoplease.com/spot/yugotimeline1.html. 5. Clinton, Bill. (2013). ‘Ayton Accords.’ Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 28 January, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/153203/Dayton-Accords. 6. Daalder, Ivo H. (1998). ‘Decision to Intervene: How the War in Bosnia Ended.’ Brookings. [Online]. Retrieved 28 January 2015 from http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/1998/12/balkans-daalder. 7. Hacioglu, U. and Dincer, H. (2013). ‘Financial Contributions and Economic Outlook in Bosnia from Dayton to 2008 Global Economic Recession.’ Global Business and Economics Research Journal [E-journal], 2(2), p.15. Retrieved 25 January 2015 from http://earsiv.beykent.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/245/A13.financial%20contributions%20and%20economic%20outlook%20in%20bosnia%20from%20dayton%20to%202008%20global%20economic%20recession.pdf?sequence=1. 8. History.com. (2009). ‘Bosnian Genocide.’ History.com. [Online]. Retrieved 28 January 2015 from http://www.history.com/topics/bosnian-genocide. 9. Laurent, J. Crushman. (2011). ‘The Seven States of the Former Yugoslavia: An Evaluation’ 10. MacDowall, Andrew. (2015). ‘Former Yugoslavia Still Recovering From Wars – and Titoist Legacy.’ Obserwatorfinansow.[Online]. Retrieved 27 January 2015 from http://www.obserwatorfinansowy.pl/tematyka/in-english/former-yugoslavia-still-recovering-from-wars-and-titoist-legacy/. 11. Malcolm, Noel R. (2014). ‘Bosnian conflict.’ Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 28 January 2015 from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1365562/Bosnian-conflict. 12. Mirkovic, Damir. (1996). ‘Ethnic Conflict and Genocides: Reflections on Ethnic Cleansing on Former Yugoslavia.’ Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, 548, p. 193. 13. Mojzes, Paul. (2013). Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Why Did it Happen and Could it Happen Again? Paris: Gicero Foundation, pp.8-9. 14. Mojzes, Paul. (2014). ‘From Genocide to Dialogue: Christian-Muslim Relations in the Former Yugoslavia.’ Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe 34 (3). 15. Portland Trust. (2009). Economics in Peacemaking: Lessons from Bosnia and Herzegovina. London: The Portland Trust, p.6. 16. Pumphrey, George. (2011). ‘“The Srebrenica Massacre”: Analysis of the History and the Legend.’ In: Karganovi, Stephen et al. (eds) Deconstruction of a Virtual Genocide: An Intelligent Person’ Guide to Srebrenica. The Hague: Srebrenica Historical Project, pp.159-171. 17. Sells, Michael. (1997). "Religion, History, and Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina." In: Davis, G. Scott. (ed). Religion and Justice in the War over Bosnia. New York: Routledge, pp. 23-43. 18. Smith, R. Jeffrey. (2014). ‘Srebrenica massacre.’ Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 27 January, 2015, fromhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1697253/Srebrenica-massacre. 19. Spinner-Halev, Jeff. (2012). Enduring Injustice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.67. 20. Szamuely, George. (2011). “Securing Verdicts: The Misuse of Witness Testimony at The Hague.” In: Herman, Edward S. (ed). The Srebrenica Massacre: Evidence, Context, Politics. Retrieved 27 January 2015 from http://www.nspm.rs/files/Srebrenica_Massacre_rev_3.pdf 21. The Ambassadors Review [Online].  Retrieved 27 January 2015 from  http://www.iwp.edu/news_publications/detail/the-seven-states-of-the-former-yugoslavia-an-evaluation. 22. Wanki, James-Emmanuel. (2011). ‘Disarming war, arming peace: The Congo Crisis, Dag Hammarskjöld’s Legacy and the Future Role of MONUC in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.’ Africa Journals Online [E-journal], p.107. Retrieved 26 January 2015 from http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcr/article/viewFile/68156/56246. 10. Appendix Maps of Bosnia Bosnia showing the two republics in one government Bosnia in relation to other European powers Read More

However, these forces seemed incapable of the situation. This was complicated due to the UN charter which did not favor one section against another during wars. Their peace keepers were often attacked making the situation worse. During massacre at Srebrenica, Dutch UN peace keeping forces were attacked. They therefore could not offer support to the Bosniaks as a result. This led to massive murder calling for intervention of another force. European Community, the forerunner of European Union was another force that was involved in reconstruction of former Yugoslavia.

Juncas (2005) views this force as a civil institution that did not want to resolve to military power to solve disputes. The activities of this group were more diplomatic than the UN. Juncas continues to argue that this force wanted to solve the European matters without the intervention of US terming it as the era of Europe. Through diplomacy, this institution achieved more than the UN. However, the process was slow compared to NATO. Brioni Agreement of 1991 was signed in Slovenia creating a ceasefire.

However, the activities of UN were laundered more than those of EC. However, from 1999, it adopted military approach to solving crisis. This was after it changed from EC to European Union. It still supports the peace and reconstruction in former Yugoslavia up to date. North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO) was another force that helped reconstruct former Yugoslavia. NATO entered into Yugoslavia after the Srebrenica incidence (Pumphrey 2011). This force was more violent than the other two.

It involved military power to bring the Serbs into surrender. Various air strikes were carried out in Yugoslavia and the Serbs suffered heavy losses. NATO supported Bosniaks leading to the Bosniaks having an upper hand in the war. As a result, Serbs began experiencing defeat in the war. It is the attacks of NATO that led to Dayton Agreement being signed leading to the end of the war of Yugoslavia. The contribution of NATO in former Yugoslavia was the ending of the war. Their attacks led to deterioration of the economy of the region as many assets were destroyed during the fighting.

Unlike EC, NATO did not go for peace but employment of military power to suppress military power. However, its results were immediate as they marked the end of four years’ war in Yugoslavia. NATO forces were the US and Canada. EC viewed this as interference in domestic issues by the western powers although they worked together. 4. Political Reconstruction The genocide of Yugoslavia led to disintegration of the region into seven countries as Laurent (2011) suggests. Each republic had its president and assembly.

These states were broken mainly among the ethnical lines marking the end of the Communist Yugoslavia. Each of these countries is discussed below. a. Montenegro Initially, Montenegro was part of Serbia during the first break away in 1992. The republic was called Serbia and Montenegro. It became a sovereign state in 2006 and was recognized as a member of UN. b. Bosnia and Herzegovina It was among the initial three republics created after Dayton Agreement. This is a complex government with two republics.

These include the Republika Srpska which consist Serbians and Bosniak Croat Federation which consists the Croatians. However, there is overall government which is in charge of national policies. Brčko District which was part of the republic is now under international supervision as a sovereign state. c. Croatia Croatia was among the three republics formed during Dayton Agreement. It has historical relations with the central of Europe and was a part of empire of Austria-Hungary. After the fall of the empire during World War 2, Croatia came a Nazi control and sided with Axis powers of the war.

In 1990s, it was involved in Yugoslavian war pushing Serbians out of its republic. These Serbians wanted to annex parts of Croatia. This war ended in 1995 following Dayton Agreement. It annexed Eastern Slovenia in 1998 expanding its size.

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