Globalization and Culture - Essay Example

Globalization and culture al affiliation Globalization and culture Introduction The term “globalization” cannot be adequately defined to incorporate all the aspects associated with the close relationship among different countries around the world. It is also, according to Conversi (2010), hard to establish the actual time that globalization began, and for how long it has been in existence. Nevertheless, a simple definition of the term “globalization” usually touches on the continued interdependence among individual countries, all over the world, such that the world has practically become a “global village”. Of particular concern, is the fact that many analysts of globalization tend to focus on the economic globalization of different countries around the world. Hendee (2008) writes most definitions of globalization tend to focus on the economic side of globalization, particularly the existence of free trade, and end up downplaying the role of globalization on culture. It is, however, important to note that this kind of free trade exists among people of different cultures and so the process of globalization has led to cultural exchanges worldwide. Accordingly, this essay seeks to address the issue of cultural globalization, by analyzing the history of cultural globalization by examining the stages that globalization has gone through. In addition, the essay will analyze the effects that this kind of globalization has had on the cultures of different people, and weigh the negatives versus the positives. Defining “culture” Similar to globalization, the term “culture” is not easy to define as it incorporates so many aspects of a particular society. In quoting Castells (2009), Movius (2010) refers to cultural globalization as the “emergence of a specific set of values and beliefs that are largely shared around the planet.” Guang (n.d) quotes Aristotle as having once said that human beings are not only political animals but also cultural animals. Culture, thus, makes human beings different from each other and makes the difference between diverse societies. If a certain society remains isolated from the rest of the world, then the society would probably think that theirs is the only culture in the world. On the contrary, societies that are exposed to other societies in the world come to learn that there are other cultures out there that are different from their own. As such, globalization has served to expose societies to the outside world, thus, allowing cultural interactions among different societies. According to Guang (n.d), the interaction between cultures can result in “cultural exchange, cultural diffusion, cultural assimilation, cultural conflict, or, in some cases, cultural extinction.”In order to understand the effects that the globalization of culture has had on people, it is vital to understand the genesis of globalization. The stages of cultural globalization According to Guang (n.d) the process of globalization began in the pre-modern times, but the real effects of globalization began to be felt after World War II. Globalization firmly took root during and after the cold war. Hayden & El-Ojeili (2006) state that the process of globalization has undergone four major faces. In quoting held et.al (1999), Hayden & El-Ojeili (2006) write that the first phase was during the Neolithic revolution which ended around the year 1500. Globalization during this stage was very minimal especially because, as Hayden & El-Ojeili (2006) put it, interactions between people were based on porous borders of those communities. Since there were no legal authorities to control the movement of people, interactions took place often, especially based on trade, thus facilitating cultural exchanges. The second phase was the pre-modern period which came to an end at around 1850. In the duration of this period, nation-states began to be formed, mostly in Europe as sovereign states were formed. In an effort to seek legitimacy and power, many of these European countries started venturing outside Europe and establishing trade relations with other continents (Sotshangane, 2002), mainly through military conquests. Countries such as Britain made trade ties with china, India, and the East African coastal region. Hayden & El-Ojeili (2006) also add that the primary way in which cultural diffusion occurred during this pre-modern phase was through religious missions. Globalization was now taking root as inter-continental trade flourished. The modern phase then came into place and globalization continued up to 1945. Unlike the previous periods which were characterized by mutually beneficial relations among nations and regions, the modern are saw globalization take an evil turn as cultural imperialism take root. The rivalry among European countries and the supremacy battles that ensued, leading up to the First World War, led to the death of approximately fifteen million people (Hayden & El-Ojeili, 2006). This period also witnessed the colonization of other continents by the European countries, and the subsequent resistance by the colonized led to the death of many more people. Lastly is the contemporary period which started after World War II and continues to date. The end of the Second World War in 1945 marked the last phase of globalization, which similar to the preceding face, was also marked with negative consequences. By this time, globalization was strife as people around the world had intermingled, mainly due to trade and war. Hayden & El-Ojeili (2006) write that by the end of the war, approximately 55 million people were dead, and many others were forced to relocate from their homes. As a consequence, the United States and the Soviet Union would emerge as the superpowers and impose their beliefs and cultures on other people around the globe. After the cold war, however, the United States became a global hegemonic state, and the United States culture continues to influence people around the globe. The effects of cultural globalization The effects of globalization have been felt by virtually every society around the globe. In order to understand how the globalization of culture has affected societies, it is vital to know the elements of culture that have been affected. Conversi (2010) defines culture as the values, norms, crafts, skills, and knowledge transmitted from one generation to another. The author adds that a generational gap in the transmission of the culture leads to cultural loss and the disruption of human knowledge. In this context, therefore, the globalization of culture can lead to either marginalization or hybridization of cultures. As such, not a single culture that has been touched by globalization has remained the same. This means that all cultures have either changed in the positive or in the negative as a result of globalization. The Marxist point of view for example, according to Hendee (2008) perceives globalization as being destructive of some cultures. This is particularly in relation to the economic relationships between western countries and developing countries. According to Marxists, western values, which have been spread by globalization, only serve to swallow the cultures of “native” people in other parts of the world. Wells (2001) writes that the globalization of culture destroys diversity and identity. Guang (n.d) adds that although the world is nowadays considered a “global village” this village is made up of people with very diverse cultures and the prospects of cultural homogeneity are very minimal. Globalization, which according to Kraidy (2002) started during the transatlantic slave trade, has today resulted in the hybridity of cultures all over the world. This hybridity is a by-product of the dynamics of traditions and modernity, with the former being more traditional and the latter more global. Western countries such as the United States has been, according to Kraidy (2002) been able to spread its culture throughout the globe due to its highly sophisticated media. As Guang (n.d) states, cultural imperialism is strife in the globe today, as western values are carried to other areas around the globe by media such as music, movies, books, and TV programs. The colonial period exemplifies the effects of cultural imperialism. During this period, European countries went on to colonize America, Africa and Asia and impose European values on the colonized. The form of cultural imperialism exercised by European countries was violent and invasive. Particularly in Africa, the Europeans invaded the continent, subdivided it amongst themselves and imposed their methods of leadership on the Africans. When the Africans tried to resist the European influence, most were killed and some imprisoned. That is the price that Africans had to pay, all in the name of cultural globalization. Although the Africans were finally able to reclaim their political independence, much of the cultural identity had been eroded and a great deal of western culture had been adopted by the Africans. Ethnocentrism is the tendency by people of a particular culture to perceive other cultures as inferior. The belittling of other cultures may cause social and political tensions since the disparaged would also want to prove the superiority of their own culture. Without social order, it would be very difficult for societies to exist and the probability for conflicts and wars is very high. Guang (n.d) gives the example of the recent revival of Islamic groups who are using terror to redefine themselves and claim a position on the global cultural map. Islam was, in the 20thcentury, overtaken by Christianity as the chief religious culture world-wide. As European countries expanded to establish political powers outside Europe, they also spread the religious culture of Christianity. Regions that were traditionally Muslim were forced to adopt Christianity and many people converted from Islam to Christianity. This way, the culture of Islam was lost in many places, as Christianity took over as the chief religion. However, in recent days, Muslim groups such as the Muslim brotherhood in Egypt have awakened and ousted sitting governments and replaced them with their preferred leaders. In other countries such as Colombia and Nigeria, the governments are faced with the task of subduing the FARC and Boko Haram, respectively. It is, therefore, apparent that the globalization of culture can be very dangerous if one culture is made to feel inferior to another, because the former may resolve to violent methods of re-affirming the importance of their culture. According to Wells (2001), globalization has often been associated with the replacement of traditional cultures with materialistic ones. The author gives the example of how the French are worried that McDonalds is going to replace French cuisine. Some French people have, therefore, started anti-globalization campaigns aimed at stopping what they see as American hegemony being imposed on them, culturally. Conversi (2010) argues that globalization has pushed for the extinction of local, national, and regional cultures, replacing them with a “global” culture, which basically is the western culture. Accordingly, poor countries have lost their autonomy and some of these societies have witnessed the extinction of their cultures. On the other hand, proponents of cultural globalization hold that globalization has helped conserve culture, particularly through modern communication systems that allow the rapid sharing of information. Movius (2010) gives the example of online media that has helped create social relations among people of diverse cultures. This gives people the chance to share and accept their individual cultures and learn about the cultures of others. Another way in which cultural globalization is beneficial, according to Sotshangane (2002) is through the appreciation of cultural diversity. Sotshangane (2002) states that in almost every city and town, people have the choice of the kind of food they want to eat in accordance with their culture. For example, American restaurants offer a range of Japanese, French, Thai, African, and Asian foods among others for their residents. This form of multiculturalism is not only expressed via cuisine, but also in other areas such as education, for example the teaching of foreign languages, and entertainment, for example the airing of cross-regional programs. This multiculturalism is advantageous because it caters for the cultural needs of people living outside their places of origin, and also allows other people to learn the cultures of others. Summary and Conclusion In most cases, globalization has been painted as positive process which has brought together different countries around the globe to interact with one another for mutual good. This maybe relatively true on the economic side of globalization, but certainly not for cultural globalization. Throughout the four stages of globalization, people have always had problems in as far as cultural interactions are concerned. Particularly, the rise of cultural imperialism in the 19th century led to the colonization of people with “inferior” cultures. This kind of ethnocentrism led to the destruction of the cultures of the colonized people and subsequent loss of lives as the latter fought for their independence. In other cases, the introduction of new cultures threatens the existing cultures, for example the case of the French demonstrating against the influence of McDonalds. The subduing of other cultures for example the Islamic religious culture has been seen as destructive, considering the recent waves of terrorism instituted by Islamic groups who are seeking to gain control of world affairs. Although advocates of cultural globalization try to show the positive effects of globalization on culture by stating that the sharing of cultures promotes diversity, the positives are still way below the negatives. Basically, the globalization of culture has led to more negatives than positives. Ranging from cultural imperialism in form of ethnocentrism, to the numerous lives lost in the fight for cultural retention, it is clear that cultural globalization has done more harm than good. Unfortunately, nothing much can be done to correct the damage that has already been caused by this phenomenon. The effects of, particularly, cultural imperialism are irreversible. There is no way of bringing back eroded cultures, especially if those cultures have been replaced by western ones. In addition, disgruntled groups such as the Muslims fighting for recognition will become increasingly harder to calm. As western culture continues to reign over all other cultures, it becomes worrying that many more cultures will be destroyed and identities will be lost. References Conversi, D. (2010).The Limits of Cultural Globalization? Journal of Critical Globalisation Studies, 3: 36- 59. Guang, X. (n.d). Culture in the Context of Globalization: A Sociological Interpretation. Retrieved from www.eca.usp.br. Hayden, P., & El-Ojeili, C. (2006).Critical Theories of Globalization.  Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Hendee, James G. (2008) "Profitable Globalization and the Ethical Dilemma of U.S. Job Loss," Mcnair Scholars Research Journal: 1(1): 53- 70. Kraidy, M. (2002). Hybridity in Cultural Globalization. Communication Theory, 12: 316–339. Movius, L. (2010). ‘Cultural Globalisation and Challenges to Traditional Communication Theories’, PLATFORM: Journal of Media and Communication 2(1): 6-18. Sotshangane, N. (2002). What Impact Globalization Has On Cultural Diversity? Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 1(4): 214-231. Wells, G. (2001). The Issue of Globalization-An Overview. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Read More