Transnational Organized Crime and the Countering Strategies of the United States - Research Paper Example

Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Introduction 3 The UN Body Convention and Pre-meditated Criminal Operations 6 The UN Accord definition of the Act 7 The Accord and the defense against trafficking of societal and literal assets 9 Technological Aid 10 Instruction of criminal justice professionals 10 Information distribution amongst unlawful justice practitioners 11 Assessing organized crime trends 12 Kidnapping and organized crime 12 . Witness handling and safeguarding 13 Organized Crime in America in the 1920's 15 Drug Trafficking in America 15 The American military and the vice 18 Technology and Inter-regional crime 18 Human Trafficking in America 20 Conclusion 22 Worldwide structured crime An intercontinental prearranged transgression refers to the setting up and implementation of prohibited trade activities by bands or organizations of people who base their operations in more than one state. The aforementioned criminal bands exploit methodical aggressive behavior in combination with sleaze in the overall pursuit of their common objectives. The usual felonies that associate with the behavior are of a broad variety, and usually include currency decontamination, the trafficking of individuals, felonies attributed with the internet, and the illegal conveyance of banned medicinal products, armaments, products of extinct breeds of animals, constituents of human being cadavers, or reactive and potentially harmful chemical materials1. The multinational crime bands operations usually comprise of a direct effect regarding the destabilizing and deterioration of major fiscal systems and the utter corruption and disregard of all democratic decisions and actions in all of the involved regions. The felony bands habitually base their illegitimate activities in areas and nations that administrations that exhibit the total lack of effective measures to counter their existence. As a result, they openly proceed with their numerous and diverse banned operations, which usually help them to rake in significant monetary and influential gains. Whilst setting their various criminal actions in operation, they frequently destabilize the existent peaceful and lawful atmospheres in their particular areas of interest, and spark fear in the citizens of those locations. This paper will seek to expound on the issue of multinational felonies comprehensively. The paper will place intense focus on activities regarding the topic in the American nation, and the strategies that the nation, in conjunction with other foreign managements and peacekeeping conventions, have put in place in order to rectify the apparent mess. Introduction The politically based wrangles that have frequently occurred, particularly since the advent of the 21st century, in conjunction with the numerous and variant breakthroughs in intricate technology systems, have both influenced the issue of border crossing felony activities to be a major matter of interest and concern to the American nationwide management. The currently magnified rate of travelling and business operations and the accomplished breakthroughs in the computer software and technology departments have all produced an inadvertent result comprising of the increasingly accessibility and growth of the illegal multinational operations2. Due to this phenomenon, extreme and effective tactical operations of the American administration to eliminate this problem should be in such a way that they elicit significant effects far across the country’s boundaries. This is the only plausible method of the identification and annihilation of this behavior in an effective manner. Analysts have projected that only the practices of colluding with foreign administrations can aid the American nation management systems to formulate the appropriate strategies and lines of actions that will effectively combat this growing concern successfully. The advent and progression of pre-arranged felony operations has exhibited numerous distinct effects. The activities have shown their potential of affecting the existent calm environment of ordinary citizens, the utter transgression and undermining of the public’s basic rights to life, and the disregarding of the fiscal, communal, intellectual, political, and communal advancement of many cultures and societies across the globe. The practice of multinational crime operations usually shows itself in various avenues. The avenues include the illegal conveyance of banned drugs, firepower, and even sex. In a similar context, the relevant establishments usually take advantage of the present culture of easily accessible individual transport systems in order to transport aliens illegally and exploit various fiscal sectors by using the context of money laundering. Habitually, these operations involve the use and transportation of enormous amounts of currency, and thus possess numerous direct and indirect effects3. The illegal operations regarding the massive can undermine most legitimate economies. In addition, they can also indirectly destabilize governments through compromising election processes. Whilst the processes accrue vast amounts of illegal income for the participants, they also expose the involved victims to severely dangerous circumstances. Annually, most victims usually die due to effects of the operations. They usually lose the battle for survival against drug-induced illnesses, fatal injuries accrued from the irresponsible use of armaments, or the irresponsible actions of the perpetrators of the banned activities4. Since its advent, transnational pre-arranged felony activities have gradually developed in complexity and distinction. The activities have reached an international level of activity, and their worth has exceeded macroeconomic stages. According to analysts, in the present situation, banned substances can now be taken from one country, conveyed to another region, and sold in a third area. Currently, the pre-meditated felony operations possess the capability to infringe virtually all existing governmental establishments and sectors, instigate sleaze in all levels and stages of administrations, permeate all levels of trade and political surroundings, and subjugate major monetary and civic advancement notions and activities. In the exploiting of all governmental policies, the criminals utilize the method of illegally undermining the government activists who hold key offices in the relevant establishments. This can either happen persuasively or brutally or sometimes result to major physical injuries of the victims or their relatives5. The multinational characteristics of pre-arranged crime enable the felony associations to form partnerships that extend across country limits. In addition, the nature helps the associations to counter the societal and linguistic challenges that occur in all foreign activities. The crime circumstances do not materialize as stagnant and defunct forms. Instead, they continuously grow and adapt in line with various fluctuations in the different environmental circumstances across the globe. In addition, the links and connections amidst the individual criminal bands has gradually progressed to an extremely complex and intricate form. Generally, since the crime establishments cut across all sectors of the world and societies, all strategies to counter it should obviously approach the situation in a similar manner6. The UN Body Convention and Pre-meditated Criminal Operations The UNODC branch of the universal UN body is the overall custodian and implementer of the UN Convention that concerns the issue of pre-meditated illegal activities. The body is responsible for ensuring the awareness and activation of the three policies of the United Nations that concern the illegal associations and their mode of operations. The policies specifically focus on the matters of illegal human conveyance, covert immigration activities, and the uncensored transportation of armaments in all parts of the planet. The policies’ structures entail the universal countermeasures that are appropriate in dealing with such varieties of actions, and their main purpose is the total elimination of such occurrences and their perpetrators7. The convention currently stands out as the sole intercontinental principle whose only duties and purposes are to deal with this disaster. The convention is an excellent exhibition of the worldwide public’s communal attempts to eliminate this problem. Furthermore, it details the United Nation’s enthusiasm and commitment in the eradication of this problem and the indictment of all involved individuals. The formulation and implementation of this convention happened during the 55th gathering of the United Nations universal gathering in the year 2000. The policies were finally activated in the year 2003. This represented an unprecedented dedication of the United Nations towards the matter8. The accord provides the affiliated nations with a basic structure regarding the effective elimination and inhibition of organized felony operations. In addition, the agreement offers a base that enables the easy collaboration of two or more nations in the joint pursuit of the organizations’ members. The UN has already commissioned all its members to identify and specify all relevant activities as criminal in their respective areas. In addition, the UN offers numerous benefits to all regional administrations on the event of their registration with it. All partners of the body enjoy unlimited access to a new and conventional structure that entails the reciprocal legal aid regarding the issue and enforced transportation of imprisoned offenders in order to aid their indictment. Furthermore, the convention supporters have also promised their guaranteed dedication to the promotion of relevant training and access to all the required technological aid to all nations that need them without any hindrance or bureaucracy. They have done this with the main aim of strengthening and supporting the ability of all vital nationwide administrations concerning their efforts in combating the phenomena9. The UN Accord definition of the Act However, the UNTOC accord does not include a clear-cut description of international structured transgressions. In addition, it does not also have a comprehensive list detailing the various kinds of activities or deeds that constitute to the crime. This absence of clarity regarding the various constituents that make up the crime was intentional. It was intentionally done in order to permit the wider applicability and relevancy of the controlled transgressions principle to emerging kinds of actions relating to the act as the key universal, provincial, and home-ground state of affairs transform as time goes on10. Nonetheless, the accord details a broad and inconclusive list of the major definitions regarding the structured criminal organizations. A cluster or association of three or more individuals that materialized from the inclinations and combinability of intentions of the member participants An illegal group or band of individuals that has been in existence for a significant length of time A group that is committing illegal actions, and their main intentions of their actions being the commission of a crime A group whose unlawful actions warrant the imprisonment of the convicted members for a duration of time that is not less than four years An establishment that commits illegal activities in order to gain fiscal or material results, either directly or indirectly However, as most groups, either legal or legal, comprise of three or more members who are working towards a communal objective and have been in operation for a particular duration, the accord’s key description factors of organized felony associations place much focus on the group’s illegal nature of their activities. In addition, it also centers on the illegal gains resulting from the actions, and the level of severity of their particular transgressions. The agreement and its frameworks only involve felonious organizations that operate across national perimeters. In addition, apart from encompassing criminal actions that occur in more than one region, it also focuses on criminal actions that happen in a different region from the location of the planning activities. The structures also deal with the illegal activities of covert bands of organizations that operate on a multinational scale11. The accord also covers the criminal actions that happen in one region and, as a result, drastically affect the normal affairs of another state. Generally, the accord’s definition of the subject comprises of almost all illegal activities that present potential gains to their planners and result to significant word wide effects. Though this description seems to be excessively broad and shallow, it focuses on the universal intricacy regarding the subject, and enables the effective cooperation of multiple governments’ efforts in attacking the problem on an infinitely broad platform. The Accord and the defense against trafficking of societal and literal assets The United Nations, through its 2008/23 decree, discussed the possible ways of safeguarding against the trafficking activities concerning traditional and cultural assets. The UN’s fiscal and cultural council repeated a request that it had presented to the body’s office of drugs and crime and its scientific and traditional branch. The request entailed the gathering of an all-inclusive international meeting. The main agenda of the gathering was to propose to the crime avoidance commission the possible recommendations during its 18th session. The proposals were to focus on issues concerning the safeguarding of cultural interests against possible trafficking. In addition, they encompassed the available avenues of constructing a pilot treaty that covered the possible crimes that usually affect the traditional heritage of various communities, and in particular, their transferrable possessions. The gathering attracted both its members and other relevant external partners to contribute their monetary inputs to the office in order to facilitate the successful holding of the assembly. Technological Aid The United Nation’s anti-crime unit provides much-needed aid to member nations in the implementation of appropriate and practical steps that concur with the accord stipulations towards the purpose of combating pre-meditated crime. The UN crime body has been very vocal in its continued publicizing of the crime treaty. It has done this through the extensive pressuring of its affiliations and it partner nations to influence them to elevate the level of awareness of organized felony acts in their respective administrations. It has embarked on intensifying its projects regarding the issue to a continent level. In addition, the office formulates and operates customized technological aid programs that help to support particular planned crime agencies in numerous states, and focus them towards nations that are experiencing intensified crime occurrences or exhibit the potential worsening of the current local situations. Instruction of criminal justice professionals The Anti-Organized transgressions and regulation implementation office has built up an assortment of project proposals projected towards the training of legislation enforcing staff, who include police force investigators, lawyers and adjudicators, aptitude technicians, and society members and leaders. According to the stipulations of the principle, these structures scrutinize the superlative avenues to respond to structured misdemeanors through tackling investigations, intercontinental collaboration, shielding of eyewitnesses, deterrence of prearranged crime, and relevant transgression legislature12. Information distribution amongst unlawful justice practitioners The UNODC division is a central position for the collection of information regarding worldwide-prearranged crime. The office manages this by following numerous stipulations regarding the information. The organized felonies office usually constructs the information pertaining to local crime appraisals and then subsequently places it on the UNODC's web page. The finished information usually comprises of details regarding the character of dynamic illegal groups that exist in different nations, and a summary of their outstanding aspects and extraordinary uniqueness. The report is usually accessible to the public, and is put in a downloadable and printable format with no restrictions. The office is always working on continuous information compilation labors through the placing of appropriate policies, legislation, and frameworks all over the world in order to battle controlled crime. Assessing organized crime trends The UN crime branch usually gathers precise information that proffers a comprehensive summary of planned crime incidents, and the exhibited attempts, both failed and successful, of various nations in countering the vice. In addition, it invents and offers to various nations potentially effective reactions, which also consist of the office’s technical support alternatives in line with ideal forms of universal administration collaboration. To date, the office has undertaken two region-based research analyses. One of the analyses focused on the Central Asia environment, and placed exceptional focus on Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and the Kyrgyz sovereign nation. The second analyses concentrated on the West Africa area, putting much effort in the current situations in Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, and the Sierra Leone republic Kidnapping and organized crime The escalating participation of prearranged transgression factions in abduction with the aim of demanding payoffs has elicited grave anxiety amid the intercontinental population. Analysts have revealed that, among the worst affected regions, various prearranged crime groupings participate in numerous kidnappings annually, which amount to several hundreds of incidents in number13. The Anti-Organized felony and legislation-monitoring sector has urbanized a U.N. Manual that describes appropriate methods of dealing with abduction cases to be used by the global policing authorities. The manual proffers a structural guideline for rule creators, law implementation staff, and legal justice professionals. Its chief purpose is to avail guiding principles that detail the best approaches to use in dealing with abduction incidences in a sensible and efficient mode to countrywide establishments14. Though the constitutional and state procedures that specifically aim at abduction issues are detailed, the guidebook is purposely dedicated to the existing chief rejoinders that are elemental in the realizing of victory in the impediment and analysis on the matter. The handbook idea came from a succession of various functioning groups who donated the proposals regarding the idea in collaboration with a number of provincial specialists. The manual was finally availed to all the UN affiliates in the year 2006, and was in the form of all the officially recognized dialects15. . Witness handling and safeguarding The UN launched a series of relevant practices in the year 2008 in order to cover the witness protection factors in a comprehensive manner. In addition, it offered proposals regarding the matter and fervently supported the incorporation of them into the justice systems all over the world, and, in particular, its member nations. They came into being following successive meetings that consisted of experts from its member regions. Their formation and framework represent the previous experience of various regional authorities in combating the organized crime menace16. In addition, the practices drew strength and relevancy from the data from the UN office concerning the issue. The policies exploit the holistic form of approach towards the safeguarding of witnesses in pending cases of organized transgressions. They intensively analyze all potentially appropriate measures that can help in protecting of witnesses and ensuring their safety during and after the conclusion of the cases. They particularly focus on potential threats and intimidating actions toward the witnesses from members of gangs that are currently under scrutiny. The practices detail the appropriate measures that can aid governments in the early distinction of meek witnesses and the awareness of the potential dangers that the witnesses could face that emanate from gang activities. The practices guide the law implementation units in the best ways to handle the identities of witnesses during the proceedings of gang prosecutions. Furthermore, they advise the concerned administrations on appropriate steps to take particularly in severe situations17. These measures include permanent residence reallocations and the creation of new, usually false, identities. The witness frameworks of the UN office of drugs and trafficking are custom-built to fit in different regions. Each continent has its own framework, and all its activities regarding witness handling should concur with them. Latin America regions also enjoy their personalized frameworks, which appear to be most effective in the battle against the vice. The structures have been successfully tested in Brazil and the Honduras, and have produced satisfactory results. Organized Crime in America in the 1920's The 1920s was a tricky era for the American public. Numerous citizens had to choose to live out the lifestyles of crime as they thought that their thoughts regarding the realizing of monetary gains were limited, or thought that the illegal avenues were easily available and extremely beneficial. The other section of the American public respected and worshipped the existing crime gangs, and perceived them as heroes of the society. As a result, the American justice section underwent immense amounts of trouble and inconvenience from the criminal bands it was trying to eliminate. However, in most scenarios, the administration ended up to loss, both in administrative and societal perspectives. However, the justice branch, due to its resilient endeavors, came out as the stronger and prevailing side at the end. Because of this tremulous period, the FBI department underwent serious reform, and the public became more aware of the existence and prevalence of criminal bands in the society. The 1920s period was an era in which the U.S. justice framework accomplished monumental breakthroughs in the execution of unlawful practices investigation principles and methods. Nonetheless, the period will forever stand out as one of the most dangerous and eventful period of the American crime department. Drug Trafficking in America The existence of drug trafficking has been a mammoth quandary in America in the previous decades18. The American governments have attempted numerous types of efforts towards the alleviation of its resident public from the dangers of substance and drug mistreatment. As a result, the US administrations have fashioned diverse associations and have formulated relevant legislations aimed at battling the widespread crisis of drug trafficking. The drug conveyance practice is among the well known and beneficial venture of the nation controlled crime movements. The venture rakes in yearly proceeds that amount to more than $ 110 billion dollars. Though the practice of illicit drug trafficking had risen over time, the American administration had embarked on the implementation of appropriate and adequate steps to eliminate the prevalent vice. The practice of the illegal conveyance of illicit drugs including cocaine, MDMA, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin is experiencing relevant actions that respond effectively to the continuous worldwide and local efforts in containing and eliminating the vice. Analysts have proven that the American trade activities, both legal and illegal, conducts monetary operations at a very high level on a daily basis. This includes all forms of operations like air, sea, and land-related activities. Through this excessively massive trade actions, the drug traffickers cover up methamphetamine, marijuana, cocaine, MDMA, and heroin transports that are intended for circulation in numerous American regions and localities. The aforementioned drugs and substances comprise of the most common banned drugs that permeate the American regions every day. The drugs emanate from both local and the surrounding foreign areas that border the nation. The Mexican region is, from research results, the most obvious source, or origin of the banned commodities19. The criminal bands exploit the instability of the region to cover up their aggressive conveyance of the products. Thus, they use the area as a convenient transit avenue for their covert shipments of the products. In addition, the Russian and Israel-based criminal bands that involve themselves in the drug trafficking trade and the Europe-based cartels stand out as the prime conveyors of MDMA across the planet. Apart from the criminal affiliations that operate from foreign areas, the existing locally-based parties endeavor to nurture, manufacture, fabricate, or dispense the illegitimate drugs that include lysergic acid, phencyclidine, methamphetamine, diethylamide, and marijuana. The American management, in its reaction to these intimidations regarding the sustaining of nationwide sanctuary and its civilization, embarked on formulating and monitoring various branches that would help it to counter the existence and availability of the dishonest drugs and its supplication to its resident citizens. A major invention of the American management systems concerning the organized crime phenomena is the nation’s Drug Enforcement organization. The specific objective of the Drug Enforcement management is the effective implementing and monitoring of the regulated substances decrees and conventions of the American country20. Moreover, the department holds the responsibility of investigating, catching, and prosecuting all perceived and actual perpetrators of the illegal actions pertaining to the vice. In the American region, there is plausible evidence of other offices that also engage in the relevant efforts in battling drug trafficking and its known effects. These bands are correlated and intertwined with one another in their collective aim in the forming of a joint approach of all involved participants. The major players include the justice sector, NGOs, community groups, and locally-based technicians who are devoted to the effective monitoring of all laws and the publicity that the actions incline to cause. The American military and the vice The military department of any nation partakes in a fundamental role in the monitoring and eradication of all drug trafficking actions. Furthermore, the home-based technicians also immensely contribute in the enforcement actions. However, the nation’s law enforcement sectors are usually bound by their respective limits and the intensiveness of governmental influences that the law avails to them. The armed arm of the United States department plays an influential role in the issue of organized crime. The chief reason behind this is that the military is not subject to jurisdiction inside a particular region21. Additionally, as drug, conveying is a real and notable danger to national peace, the armed forces has the right to participate in any missions regarding the vice. The alliance between the army and the regional nation police units in fighting the menace of drug trafficking in the American region can significantly boost the country’s attempts to eliminate the vice. Technology and Inter-regional crime The recent rapid sophistication in the technology field has enabled and raised the capability of international ordered crime. Additionally, the advent has given the perpetrators the easy chance to misuse advances in electronic bank services, telecommunications, encryption, and other important breakthroughs in worldwide travel and business. In addition, it is proving increasingly difficult for the various law and order units to keep up in terms of relevancy and awareness with the budding technologies in the current world, an issue that is now providing the gangs with more chances of potential gain from their misuse. International structured crime groups are ordinarily petite and adjustable bands, and are able to hire expert professionals to aid them in adapting to the novel technologies much faster than numerous governmental branches in the United States22. Among the chief sectors of concern about the vice is the technological progression of transport media, including speedboats and airplanes. Researchers have accurately showed that one of the major direct effects of the technological improvement in the transport media and avenues has been the virtual bringing of the Southeast Asian region nearer to western market bases in terms of rapid and comparatively harmless modes of conveying enormous amounts of banned substances and migrants. In the current situation, most of the universal illegal ventures are now being significantly boosted by the ease of acquisition of fast modes of travel across borders. As a result, villains of the vice are now able to cross national perimeters within minutes and into a country where no one is aware of their intentions23. In addition to the facilitating of connectivity between illegal establishments in a much more rapid and accessible way, and the facilitating of effortlessly designed and consummate intercontinental crimes, the advent and sophistication of technical advancements have also made the perpetration of related crimes easier, and has also facilitated the invention and practice of hitherto impossible criminal actions24. Furthermore, technical advancements facilitate the practicability of numerous counterfeiting activities in virtually all industries and sectors in America. The current state of sophistication in terms of technology has also facilitated the activities that are linked to the issue of identity changing and false presentations. In addition, the prevalent misuse of technology by the gangs has formed a marketplace for the covert trading of key business policies, secrets, and important information regarding new and limited research conclusions on diverse products25. Human Trafficking in America Human trafficking is one of the main predicaments in America as in many other countries26. Human being trafficking is defined as trafficking people from one nation to another, or also from region to region, and even from residence to residence. Trafficking in personnel is the current type of slavery. This offense involves sufferers who are compelled to toil, or are exploited for sexual purposes. If they decline to do whatever they are asked to, they obtain punishment, which is usually severe and fatal. Yearly, close to 600,000 to 800,000 individuals, typically women and children are conveyed across national boundaries. This figure does not comprise of all the individuals that are being trafficked in their own nations. The public gets into being trafficked through many avenues27. A number of them are bodily forced, while others fall to false promises that include promises of improved occupations or marriages. Using negotiators and brokers who organize the travel and employment placements, women are accompanied to their destinations and taken to the employers. On arriving at their destinations, a number of the women discover that they have been misled about the type of the work they will embark on. Most have been ill advised about the fiscal arrangements and terms of their employment. Inevitably, all of them find themselves in forced and abusive circumstances from which flight is both difficult and hazardous28. The main reason of a woman or a girl to agree to an offer from a trafficker is enhanced monetary opportunities for herself or her folks. In numerous cases, traffickers primarily proffer ‘legitimate’ work or the pledge of an opportunity to learn. The main kinds of work offered are in the food preparation and hotel business, in bars and nightclubs, modeling deals, or au pair labor29. Traffickers frequently use proposals of marriage, bullying, terrorization, and kidnapping as way of obtaining sufferers. In a number of the cases, the women wind up in prostitution. In addition, some prostitutes succumb to be victims of human trafficking. Several women know they will be functioning as prostitutes, except that they do not have a comprehensible view of the conditions and the terms of the work in their state of destination30. Many women are forced into the sexual category trade after applying to false advertisements, whilst others are purely kidnapped. Thousands of kids from Africa, Asia, and South America are traded into the international sex trade each year. They are abducted or orphaned, and occasionally they are in fact sold by their personal families. The universal criminal gangs operations are accountable for the increasing prevalence of the vice31. Conclusion The current prevalence of sleaze and premeditated crime factions have gradually grown to stand out as a significant matter of anxiety in numerous country administrations and governments. Apart from being a hindrance to overall nation interests and development activities, its connections with various levels and types of terrorist groups across the planet has made it to be a potential hazard to the American nation and its managerial systems. This threat has grown in a significant manner because the factions habitually operate with the covert acknowledgement and support of corrupt administrators who hold key official positions in the United States country management systems32. This has been evidenced in cases involving the covert conveyance of harmful biological materials and banned military tools and related services. The groups usually expand their activities through the blatant exploitation of prevalent national strategies and lines of actions. In general, the existence of the gangs has stirred numerous negative results in all the nations that they operate in. numerous ordinary and innocent individuals have succumbed to the operations and have lost enormous amounts of physical, psychological, and monetary possessions to the gangs33. A number of the developing financial systems have fluctuated wildly due to the corrupt monetary activities of the criminal groups, which frequently involve the use of massive amounts of cash. In the American cities, the groups, through illegal individual trafficking, have directly influenced the rapid advancing of illegal activities like prostitution and pornography. Practically, the groups bring no positive worth to any nation or establishment. They have ruled the American streets using force and intimidation. The American administration should embark on a frenzied attack on all existent gangs and permanently annihilate them. All countries should join hands in the common goal of obliterating the gangs and their operations. Bibliography Anthony, M. The War on Human Trafficking: U.S. Policy Assessed, (London: Rutgers University Press, 2007). Cyrille, F. Organised Crime in Europe: Concepts, Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond, (New Mexico: Springer, 2004). Gianluca, F. The Economics of Organised Crime (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). Howard, A. Organized Crime, (London: Cengage Learning, 2009). Kara, S. Sex Trafficking: Inside the Business of Modern Slavery, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010). Kimberly, A. Sex Trafficking: A Global Perspective, (New York: Lexington Books, 2010). McCabe, K. The Trafficking of Persons: National and International Responses (New York: Peter Lang, 2008). Michael, W. Organized Crime and American Power: A History, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001). Padhy, P. Organised Crime, (Mumbai: Gyan Books, 2006). Petter, G. Entrepreneurship and Organised Crime: Entrepreneurs in Illegal Business, (Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2009). Read More