Political Philosophy in Europe - Essay Example

EUROPEAN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Political philosophy over the last three hundred years has profoundly shaped the way we think about the world we live in. It has influenced the way we organize our cities and our states, and the way we live our lives. It is hard to over-state its impact. But how did these ideologies come to have the position that they do in our lives? Who were the men who founded the various disciplines and argued for their adoption? A closer look at the ideologies of conservatism, classical liberalism, and socialism will provide us with great insight into how our own world is constructed. Conservatism: The first modern ideology The world was changing in the eighteenth century. Revolutions were taking place in France and America. It seemed like the whole order was being reshaped. While people took to the streets in Philadelphia and Paris to overthrow the monarchies of the day, a number of philosophers were arguing against impulsive revolution. They were pointing to the institutions that had been built up over time and suggesting that people should not be so quick to turn their backs on them. Among these philosophers were four great men: Joseph De Maistre (1754-1821), B. De Bonold (1753-1840), Metternich (1773-1854), and Edmund Burke (1729-1797). De Maistre was a philosopher who argued in favour of the French monarchy. He felt this was the most stable form of government. With a stable political order, the economy could flourish. He opposed the Enlightenment with its concept of radical freedom and felt that the Catholic church was an instrument for good. De Bonold held similar view. He felt that religion was the key to political stability and the monarchy as a divinely inspired institution should have the power due to it. He too opposed the Enlightenment which he thought was a dangerous force. Metternich was an Austrian leader and diplomat opposed to democratic rule. He felt that the passions of the people could be dangerous and did his best to oppose them. A ruling class was best to control the politics of any country. Of all of these men, Edmund Burke was the most influential and the most nuanced. He opposed the French Revolution because its outcome was uncertain and its violence grotesque. He felt that order and dignity were important political qualities. British Classical Liberalism As the world began to expand in knowledge and connections, economics began to combine with political philosophy. The discipline began to expand to include such things as demographics and trade links, ideas that once were separate and unconnected. The pool of human knowledge was increasing and a number of theorists began to make connections that we still observe today. There was, however, something of a difference from one side of the English channel to the next. It is proper to describe two forms of classical liberalism: British and French. The British classical liberals we should be most concerned with were: Malthus (1766-1834), Ricardo (1772-1823), Cobden (1804-1865), and Acton (1834-1902). Malthus was one of the first serious commentators on political economy. He understood the importance of demographics and how they shaped economics. Most of his work focused on issues relating to population. He was direct correlations between increases in wages and increases in population. If people had extra money, he argued, they would produce more children. This was important for policymakers to take into account. This was a vital connection. Ricardo was another of the first commentators on political economy. He argued that economics was not a zero-sum game, but that all participants in trade could gain something. His main concept was the idea of comparative advantage which suggested that countries could trade they didnt need for those that they did need, allowing all participants to leave the exchange content. This was a revolutionary concept. Cobden was a British manufacturer who spent much of life campaigning for free trade. Like many today, he saw free trade as a way of creating a more peaceful world. He felt that imposing tariffs and blocking access to markets made the world less free and prosperous. Lord Acton was another British political writer. He felt that a centralized state would surely lead to tyranny. As a classical liberal he argued strenuously that power should be devolved to the local level. He admired the United State for the way in which it guaranteed the rights of its states in its constitution. French Classical Liberalism French classical liberalism did not differ substantially from the English variety, although the English were perhaps more vocal advocated of liberalism. Say (1767-1832) was a supporter of free trade and allowing markets to operate with less regulation. He suggested that hoarding did not happen when people acted rationally, but only in distorted markets. Bastiat (1801-1850), like many other liberals, opposed a centralizing state. In his work he argued that free markets were the most efficient allocators of resources and that markets should be allowed to do their work. When governments tried to control markets, distortions occurred. He argued vigorously against tariffs. Guizot (1787-1874) also had a conservative streak. He served in government many times and opposed revolution which he felt embodied an anti-liberty element. He was responsible for expanding public education in France. Education allowed people to be more autonomous and to participate more fully in markets. His opposition to voting rights, however, seems to contradict this idea. Thiers (1797-1877) served at the highest levels of the French government. He was always opposed to political chaos and sought political stability to allow economics to do its work increasing the prosperity of the people. Early Socialism All of history unfolds as a dialectical process, most socialists will argue. Perhaps it does. It is possible to see the rise of socialist thought as a reaction to the laissez faire aspect of classical liberalism. This was more of a continental philosophy than anything else it is one that would have huge impact on 20th century politics. In order to properly understand its foundations we must look to both early and late socialism. The first important socialists were as follows: Sismondi (1773/1772-1842), Fourier (1772-1837), and Owen (1770-1858) Sismondi was an influential Italian. Many believe he discovered the idea of economic cycles. He argued in his work that the focus of economics was too much on generating wealth and not on happiness. The clear implication of this was that money should be spread more equally. Charles Fourier was a utopianist. He thought that people should create their own communities away from the dominant system. He did his best to arrange for this to happen. His most influential argument was about womens suffrage. On this, he was ahead of his time. Owen was a Welshman and one of the first proponents of collectivization. He thought poor people should band together to create their own sustainable economies. He say the industrial age occurring around him as one that was impoverishing his people. He had a hard time putting his ideas into action, but they would prove to be influential. Later Socialism Few philosophers on this list have had the impact that Karl Marx did. His style of research and rhetoric made him famous as did his impassioned arguments. He suggested that there were laws behind history and that revolution was inevitable. He argued that the working class were being exploited and should rise and up and take what was owed to them. Many states in the 20th century were founded based on his arguments. Many took his philosophy as a license for violence. Another strain of socialism led to anarchism, exemplified by Proudhon. He famously argued that property was theft. His ideas would require the wholesale reconstruction of economics and society. The current government and rules would have to be broken down and a non-hierarchical system created in its place. This was the essence of anarchism. Bakunin (1814-1939) was a Russian with many influential ideas. He was also a proponent of collectivization. This idea had a profound influence on the Soviet leadership with dire results for millions of people. Conclusion It is clear from this brief looks at the men who have shaped our world, that political philosophy is a powerful thing. Ideas have consequences. They can lead to the deaths of millions or the prosperity and freedom of tens of millions. Only by more fully understanding these ideas can we come to know which are for good and which for evil. Works consulted Hollander, Samuel. The Economics of Thomas Robert Malthus. University of Toronto Press, 1997. Ensor, R.C.K. England, 1870–1914, The Oxford history of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. Weingast, Barry R., and Donald Wittman, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Political Economy. Oxford UP, 2008. Winch, Donald. "The Emergence of Economics as a Science, 1750–1870." In: The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 3. London: Collins/Fontana, 1973. Read More