Expansion and the European Union - Coursework Example

Expansion and the European Union Established in the wake of the Second World War, the European Union (formerly the European Economic Community) is a supranational multilateral organization which generates an estimated 30% of the world’s total Gross Domestic Product. In addition to being an economic powerhouse, the European Union (EU) represents near total European integration in the political, judicial, social and economic spheres. Accordingly, the European Union has evolved dramatically in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and has recently undergone multiple stages of expansion (enlargement in EU parlance). We will begin with a concise yet comprehensive overview of the European Union and will thoroughly address the evolution of the EU following the collapse of state-led communism in Eastern Europe. The ramifications of this incredible and for some, unimaginable, fact will be analyzed in depth with respect to the EU. We then turn to an analysis of enlargement and the growth of each organization. Thus, we look at the ever-increasing demand for growth, the trajectory in which the EU has grown and finally, the results, both intended and unintended, of enlargement. We will look at the pros and cons of EU growth through an analysis of the two most recent inductees, Bulgaria and Romania. It is through an analysis of these two cases that we can adequately explore recent EU growth. We then conclude with a broad overview of the issues analyzed with an eye to the future expansion of this important transnational organization (Warleigh 2004; Fierke & Wiener 1999). History of the EU The European Union (EU) is a supranational body composed of constituent member states, found largely on the European peninsula. Democracy, negotiation, and collective decision-making through multilateralism are all inherent attributes of the modern EU. As a multinational organization, the EU represents various national interests within an overarching political framework. The EU is an international organization which operates on the basis of negotiation between member states and relies on collective decision-making to achieve its ends. Members are joined together and bound by treaties signifying their participation within the larger EU political framework. The political decisions of member-states are thus constrained by their allegiance and signatory status to overarching EU treaties (Almond et al 2002). Today, membership in the European Union is actively sought by nearly all countries on the European peninsula as well as by one country straddling both Europe and Middle Asia (Turkey). Although there were initially only five members of the precursor to the European Union (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands and West Germany), there are presently 27 countries in the EU and they are, in alphabetical order, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and finally, the United Kingdom. Countries currently seeking membership in the EU include parts of the former Federal State of Yugoslavia as well as Turkey. A political and economic powerhouse, this intergovernmental organization is estimated to account for up to 30% of the world’s total Gross Domestic Product (Warleigh 2004). Although it has not always been the case, modern-day Europe is characterized by a unifying democratic political culture. While the concept of democracy originated on its shores, the philosophy of democratic governance was challenged in 20th century Europe by authoritarian political movements, including fascism (expressed by Nazi Germany & Mussolini’s Italy), and communism (as exemplified in Eastern Europe during the Cold War). With Allied victory in World War II and the recent collapse of the Soviet Union, democracy – in varying degrees– is now a universal trend amongst European states. In fact liberal democracy, best expressed by the states of Western Europe with entrenched democratic traditions, is quickly becoming the standard for the continent. Democratic norms and rules have subsequently been established through a pan-European legal framework, the European Union (Almond et al 2002). The Treaty of Rome, signed in March of 1957, proposed a common European economic market throughout the European Economic Community. Historically-speaking this was perhaps the most important precursor to the integration of Europe today. Recent treaties, including the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Treaty of Nice, and the failed EU Constitution all followed the precedent set more than 40 years ago in Rome. Despite some controversies, democracy remains alive and well within the EU political framework. In fact, the recent failure to implement a Constitution for Europe affirmed the democratic underpinnings of the Union and proved that debate and collective decision making are inherent components of the working European Union (Wood & Quaisser 2008). The Maastricht Treaty (1993) creating the European Union, replaced the European Community, and paved the way for further economic, social and political integration within Europe. This integration was strengthened through the implementation of three institutional pillars: 1) European Communities; 2) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and 3) police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters as well as the acceptance of a single currency, the Euro. In addition to the three pillars, the acceptance of the Euro as an official currency of members of the so-called “Eurozone” strengthened economic bonds between member states. Following negotiations in the Dutch city of Maastricht, the Treaty of Amsterdam (1999) represented a further evolution of collective decision making amongst EU members (Almond et al 2002). Described as a “confederated state”, the European Union represents an evolution of the European democratic tradition. Europe is the cradle of modern democracy and modern European states have successfully maintained a democratic tradition for centuries (Tilly rightful demonstrates entrenched liberal democracy using the case of Britain). Despite claims that legislation enacted in Brussels bypasses the rights of individual states, the opposite is true. All states within the union participate in its decision making processes (Tilly, 1993; Almond et al 2002). The European Union is arguably the world’s most successful attempt at regional integration. The motto of the EU is “unity in diversity” and collective bargaining, negotiation and a plurality of opinion are attributes of today’s EU. The European Union represents democracy at work and recent treaties obligating all members to abide by common standards in the political and social realms affirm a common standard among the states of Europe. In fact, “by agreeing to pursue that interest within an organization as constraining as the European Union, the member-states have recognized the ultimate superiority of multilateral, as opposed to unilateral, decision making and action in a variety of policy arenas”. Accordingly, multilateralism, democracy, and collective decision making are at the heart of today’s European Union (Almond et al 2002). Collapse of the Soviet Union EU constituent states universally welcome the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent reform of Eastern and Central Europe. While praising the end of the socialist experiment on the shores of the continent and encouraging the full democratization of the former satellite states of the Soviet block, European Union policymakers also welcomed the collapse for a variety of other reasons. For EU policymakers and tacticians, Eastern Europe presented a series of opportunities. Newly embracing capitalism and the democratic ideals of the West, states of the former Soviet empire were, for EU policymakers, an emerging opportunity. Yes, Eastern and Central Europe represented growth for the EU. Growth in an organizational sense, but also more importantly an opportunity for growth in the economic sphere. Pressing initial concerns included the dismantling of the oppressive authoritarian state structures of the past but once that was complete, visionary members of the European Union saw an untapped resource and excellent opportunity for economic growth in the countries which had rid themselves of the last vestiges of communism. In this sense, Eastern and Central Europe were to become markets for goods produced in the West, workers from the East were thus conceived of as potential laborers in a transcontinental and integrated economy and the markets of Poland, Hungary, the Ukraine and the former states of the Yugoslav Federation were seen as potential homes for the soon-to-be minted Euro. Thus, in 2004 the European Union embraced members of the former Soviet block and began its biggest enlargement to date with the acceptance of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia into the Union (Malta and Cyprus also joined that year). Finally, on the first day of the New Year in 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became the newest members of the EU and Slovenia officially adopted the Euro as its national currency. The concept of opportunity, as characterized by future enlargement - which we will see again later - was how the European Union saw the collapse of the Soviet Union and the democratization of Eastern Europe (Almond et al 2002). Process of Enlargement The European Union is presently in a process of enlargement, choosing to increase its membership and capabilities in response to new global realities in the post-Cold War and post-9/11 world. With respect to the EU, enlargement is eastward, towards the eastern fringes of Europe and the former satellite states of the Soviet Union. Enlargement in the post-Cold War world is likely to transform and fundamentally alter both the political and economic landscapes of modern Europe. Although NATO, another multilateral organization, expanded its base significantly following 9/11 and the European Union is also undergoing a process of expansion, it is fair to say that overall, European integration is a much slower process than the attainment of membership in the Atlantic Alliance (Bereuter 2004). Ascension is how new membership into one of Europe’s most exclusive and sought-after multilateral organizations, the European Union, is described. Ascension is the process by which enlargement occurs and where new members are admitted into the EU club. Although the precursor to the European Union started out with only 6 states, there are now 27 member states – more countries are in the arduous ascension process to one day obtain full membership – and as a reflection of the diversity within a United Europe, there are presently 23 official languages of this multilateral body (Almond et al 2002). In similar fashion to NATO, the EU experienced a crisis of sorts following the collapse of its social and economic rival in the East. Since the fall of the Soviet Block, the EU has undertaken steps to integrate the collective defence of its member states and has, rather controversially at first, established a single market currency for much of the region when it integrated the Euro in 2002. Presently there are 15 countries who use the Euro as their official currency. Seeking economic opportunity following the collapse of the Eastern block, the EU sought ways to integrate members of the former communist world into their collective organization. The Copenhagen Criteria (1993) was established as a set of democratic and capitalist credentials which needed to be implemented in order for a country to obtain EU membership. Accordingly, the Maastricht Treaty (1992) had stipulated the conditions for future enlargement. Following the end of the Cold War, the first countries to accede into the union were Austria, Finland and Sweden. The first members of the former Soviet Block to be embraced in the EU were the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia, who were accepted into the Union in 2004 (Malta and Cyprus also joined that year). This particular enlargement was the largest EU ascension ever. Bulgaria and Romania later followed on the first day of 2007. Official candidates for future enlargement are Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Western Balkan States (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia) and finally Turkey. Of note, although Turkey applied for membership more than twenty years ago; its EU membership application continues to remain in doubt (Almond et al 2002). Bulgaria On April 25 2005, Bulgaria signed a Treaty of Accession to the European Union with the objective of obtaining full fledged membership by January 2007. Accession criteria, as outlined in Copenhagen, established certain prerequisites for future membership in the EU. These include steps towards democratization, free markets, a free media and checks and balances on the state’s organs of coercion. As a CEEC country – a candidate country of Central and Eastern Europe – Bulgaria was eligible for aid from the EU as well as support in the creation of an accession road map. Charting the progress of Bulgaria in obtaining the required pre-requisites for membership, the European Commission published its Regular Report on Bulgaria (2002) setting out the legal framework for accession as well as the financial resources available from EU member states to prepare Bulgaria for eventual European Union membership. Key points in the Regular Report on Bulgaria stressed medium to long term economic priorities, a strategy to combat organized crime and strategies to strengthen Bulgaria’s judicial and administrative capabilities. Establishing a framework for Bulgarian accession, the European Union set stringent conditions which Bulgaria had to meet with particular emphasis on crime and corruption. Importantly, the adherence to this framework and the ability of Bulgaria to tackle these important priorities set the stage the financial framework between Bulgaria and the EU, an important aspect of the accession process (European Union 2008). Initially created to help two countries (Hungary and Poland) obtain EU membership, the Phare program is an important economic component of the pre- accession process. Bulgaria was an important recipient of financial aid from Phare and from 1992 to 2003 Bulgaria received approximately €1.54 billion from this EU body. Importantly, Phare aid over a four year pre-accession period, 200-2004 was estimated at €178 million annually and this amount was determined upon following an agreement between the EU and Bulgaria to dismantle and close the Kozloduv nuclear power plant in 1999. Thus, nuclear plant decommissioning played an important role in the EU decision to grant financial aid to Bulgaria in the pre- accession process (European Union 2008). In addition to nuclear decommissioning, the European Union, through Phare, provided Bulgaria with a substantial amount of financial aid in the pre-accession period. Priorities for Phare were political, economic and social. Seeing inherent weaknesses in Bulgaria and attempting to address some of the most important concerns, Phare financial assistance was allocated to strengthen public administration, improve political and administrative transparency, fight corruption and fraud, protect ethnic minorities and promote the competitive of the economy. Accordingly, on January 1st 2007, Bulgaria was welcomed by the European Union as its newest member state. Romania As with Bulgaria, the European Union approached the accession negotiations with Romania with a mixture of enthusiasm and trepidation. An Accession Partnership was established to help prepare Romania for full membership into the European Union. Primary objectives for the European Union in preparing Romania for eventual membership in the EU included a pact against organized crime, improvements to the judicial and administrative capacities of the country, and economic liberalization, particularly as it relates to the agricultural sector, an important engine of the Romanian economy. Once establishing these major priorities, the European Union stipulated that with respect to Romania’s membership, the levels of financial aid allocated to the country would be based upon the successful implementation of these priorities. Financial support in the form of the Phare program contributed substantially to the coffers of the Romanian federal government and from 1992 to 2003, Romania received approximately €2.1 billion in EU aid from Phare: a significant sum and a greater amount than that received by Bulgaria over the same period. In 2004, €405.3 million was allocated to Romania in pre-accession assistance, an increase of more than €130 million from the year before. Focusing on a set of important priorities, the Phare program in 2004 sought to target a series of weaknesses inherent domestically in the Romanian context (European Union 2008). From a political standpoint, the European Union established that Romania needed to strengthen its judicial and administrative capacities, fight corruption which was perceived to be endemic in the country, support minority rights especially with respect to the Roma population and improve prison conditions. Economically, Romania had to focus its energies on overcoming the inefficiencies associated with its land distribution policies, a communist legacy and an important hurdle to full market liberalization for the EU. Food safety concerns were also important and as we shall see below, were a major cause for concern for European Union during accession negotiations. In addition, approximately €20 million was allocated to Romania to strengthen cross-border cooperation with its contiguous neighbors, Hungary, Bulgaria, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro and finally the Ukraine. All of the priorities above were targeted by the EU through Phare as areas in need of improvement before full EU membership could be conferred (European Union 2008). Concluding Remarks As a growing multilateral organization with increasing influence on the international stage, the European Union has established themselves as itself as a key player in the post-Cold War and post-9/11 world. The EU has sustained the collapse of state-sponsored communism in Europe and has remained resilient in the face of tremendous geopolitical chance. While reinventing itself in the post-Cold War world and integrating former members of the Soviet block into its ranks, the EU has demonstrated a strong and sustained trajectory for growth. Will the EU continue to expand eastward, perhaps into Serbia or even Turkey? That remains to be seen. However, by developing in line with its ideals, the European Union has shown strength and sustainability and will continue to grow, for the benefit of Europe as a whole. Positive attributes of continued expansion and growth include new markets for EU goods and the development of strong pro-Western values with neighbors which once belonged to the Soviet sphere of influence. Negative attributes, as exemplified by the cases of Romania and Bulgaria, include welcoming countries which are not fully prepared for EU membership due to domestic factors such as political instability, corruption and poor market-orientated policies. Will future growth be positive for the EU? That remains to be seen. Bibliography Almond, G.A, Dalton, R.J & Powel Jr., G.B. European Politics Today, 2nd edition. New York: Longman, 2002. Alvarez, J.E. “International Organizations: Then and Now”. The American Journal of International Law (2006, 100(2), p. 324-347. Bereuter, D. “NATO and the EU Security Strategy”. Oxford Journal on Good Governance. (2004, 1,1), p.21-27. European Union. Partnership for the Ascension of Bulgaria. Retrieved December 9, 2008, from the European Union Portal Web site:http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/e40101.htm European Union. Partnership for the Ascension of Romania. Retrieved December 9, 2008, from the European Union Portal Web site: http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/index_en.htm Fierke K.M., Wiener A. “Constructing Institutional Interests: EU and NATO Enlargement”, Journal of European Public Policy. (1999), p.721-742. Grabbe, H. and K. Hughes. Eastward enlargement of the EU. London: Oxford University Press, 1997. Preston, Christopher. Enlargement and Integration in the European Union. New York: Routledge, 1997. Tilly, Charles. European Revolutions. London: Blackwell, 1993. Warleigh, A. European Union: The Basics. New York, Routledge, 2004. Wood, S. and Quaisser, W. The New European Union: Confronting the Challenges of Integration. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008. Read More