Anglo-American Relations in the 20th Century - Coursework Example

Anglo-American Relations in the 20th Century Introduction In the long history of relationships between nations, none has perhaps had so much influence in shaping its people and their destiny than that of the United Kingdom and the United States. This special relations between two powerful an influential nations has for almost a century, moulded the world to what we know it today. The United Kingdom and United States has evolved a warm and cordial relationship, which has undergone the test of time through strife, war, peace and cooperation. Both countries have cooperated in the political, economic, social, and military arenas in establishing bilateral agreements for their mutual benefit and the common good. Discussion The United States originally held a neutral position when the Great War broke out. It wanted to continue its isolationist policy and was fearful of getting embroiled in European conflicts. Its industries were also heavily engaged with European markets. President Woodrow Wilson also pointed out that “The people of the United States are drawn from many nations, and chiefly from the nations now at war. It is natural and inevitable that there should be the utmost variety of sympathy and desire among them with regard to the issues and circumstances of the conflict… Such divisions amongst us would be fatal to our peace of mind and might seriously stand in the way of the proper performance of our duty as the one great nation at peace, the one people holding itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation and speak the counsels of peace and accommodation, not as a partisan, but as a friend.”1 The British knew that American arms and support are vital to turn the tide in the Allies’ favor. This neutral position was reversed with the occurrence of several events, including the sinking of the Lusitania and Germany’s declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare. American entry into the war on April 6, 1917 can be considered as the foundation and the beginning of a long and lasting friendship between the U.K. and U.S. The Allies now had relatively unlimited resources and men which tipped the balance against the Central Powers. The British and American forces cooperated under a unified command headed by Field Marshal Foch and the latter agreed to fight alongside their European comrades and partially relinquish command independence in its operations. The British prime minister, along with the prime ministers of France and Italy, also appealed for more troops in 1918. It was clear that the United States had the military and financial muscle needed by the Allies to gain victory over the Central Powers. The U.S. duly responded not only in providing military resources such as armaments and men, but also monetary loans for a severely impoverished British government. The United States provided much needed economic backing to both the British and the French. The Central Powers were isolated from their prewar markets and their sources of raw materials and food. The British were also able to obtain loans from the U.S. which they used to purchase oil, wheat, steel and other products vital to their war effort. The United States was at the time the largest producer and exporter of oil in the world. Although the Allies acquired U.S. investments and loans from banking institutions and business entities prior to American involvement 1917, the United States Department of the Treasury took overall responsibility in the supervision of Allied loans which were used to purchase supplies from the U.S. American loans to the British and French amounted to $ 2.25 billion even before it entered the war on the Allied side. The British also tapped its resources from its colonial possessions in India and Indochina. The combination of the economic resources of these two nations was instrumental in ensuring Allied victory in the Great War. Point should be taken in President Wilson’s provision of loans to the Allies despite the American declaration of neutrality. Although the U.S. also provided loans to Germany, it was only a paltry $ 45 million, and much was at stake for U.S. interests and opportunities resting on the Allied side. Thus, U.S. economic interests had much to do with the nation’s entry into the war.2 As the rest of Europe groaned under the devastating effects of the conflict, the United States emerged as a strong economic and industrial power gaining new markets overseas. The British would also not rely on American initiatives alone. Recognizing that they need the resources and manpower of the U.S. to ensure victory, Britain employed propaganda to influence the American public and government policies, with the ultimate goal of bringing the U.S. into the war on their side. The U.K. established independent intelligence and censorship committees designed to place American media in the hands of the Allies. They also severed the cables, which connected Germany to the U.S., depriving the former with access to American media. The result was that American opinion was exposed and accordingly swayed in favor of British propaganda, which also contributed to U.S. entry.3 The United States entered the First World War in the name of humanity and world democracy, although its motives may well have been the result of its desire to preserve its economic interests and open new opportunities, as well as, the success of British propaganda on American public opinion and policy. The U.S. had much to lose if the Allies lost, while the Allies needed money and materials from the U.S. to sustain their war effort and their respective economies. Thus, it became clear that cooperation was mutually beneficial for the U.K. and U.S. Not to do so would have been disastrous for the British war effort and likewise for American business interests. The Great Depression was attributed to the collapse of stock market prices in Wall Street in 1929. This brought on an economic slump in North America, Europe and other industrialised nations, which lasted until 1939. Every nation became preoccupied with the protection of their respective domestic production. The United States and Britain imposed new tariffs and raised existing ones. They also set quotas for foreign imports. Thus, trade between the United States and Britain was reduced during this period of economic slow-down. International trade was reduced by more than fifty percent by 1932. The United States was also forced to recall its loans in Europe, most of which were made during World War I. Many European banks were forced to close and Britain had to resort to devalue its currency to check additional runs.4 This reduction in economic interaction between Great Britain and the U.S. also reduced their cooperation in policy and international affairs. Thus, the Munich Agreement was signed by in 1938, which ceded the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region, to Germany and became the symbol of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s Appeasement policy. The policy was popular to the British who thought that it helped avert war. However, Hitler’s invasion of Czechoslovakia determined that appeasement was a failure.5 With decreased interaction between the U.S. and Britain during this period because of each country’s preoccupation in the Great Depression, Hitler was able to consolidate and strengthen his power in Germany, which ultimately led to World War II. The United States was also not receptive to the idea of involvement in European affairs, maintaining its isolationist position because it feared being embroiled in another European conflict. As the United States relinquished itself of involvement in European affairs, the British and French stepped in to divide the Middle East. Britain acquired Palestine, the Transjordan and Iraq. They were mandated to the British by the League of Nations, after the Ottoman collapse. The Transjordan and Palestine were originally administered as a single unit until the former was separated when the Balfour Declaration took effect. The British committed themselves to the establishment of a Jewish State under the Balfour Declaration. The United States gave its assent, seeing that this was consistent with the principle of self-determination, which President Wilson advocated in his support of the League of Nations.6 Aside from its humanitarian commitment to provide the Jews with a homeland, the United Kingdom also needed U.S. support in its intention to apportion to itself the former possessions of the Ottoman Empire. The British embassy in Washington advised the government to seek favour with Jewish Americans. Supporting Zionism in Palestine was a means to get on the good side of Jewish Americans. However, the British also needed the actual support of the White House, and Chaim Weizmann who was head of the Zionist movement in Britain collaborated with his American Zionist counterpart, Louis Brandeis, whom President appointed to the Supreme Court. Through Brandeis’ influence, Wilson gave his “silent” approval to the Balfour Declaration.7 In the 1920s, policy for Britain and the United States shifted from humanitarian-collective concerns to geopolitical interests. For the U.S., economic nationalism became a priority and it sought to protect its business interests and promote its economic motives. It sought to replenish its oil reserves, which were depleted during the Great War. It also sought to ensure that Middle Eastern oil was readily available to the U.S. It also strove to maintain an “Open Door” policy in the region to encourage economic growth, which will create new markets for American business. These priorities took precedence over U.S. desire in the creation of a Jewish homeland. The United States encouraged continued Jewish immigration into Palestine. However, overall U.S. policy in Palestine during the administrations of presidents Wilson, Harding and Coolidge toward Zionism was one of sympathetic neutrality and it did not assist to Britain in helping solve the Palestinian conflict. The threat of war led Britain and the U.S. to the decision that Arab support was more important than being consistent with their promise of upholding a Jewish homeland. This was seen as a betrayal by the Zionist movement.8 Although not party to the Anglo-French Non-Intervention Agreement in the Spanish Civil War, the U.S. quickly supported the two powers. This was also consistent with U.S. isolationist policy, fearing that any for of intervention among the three countries would spread the conflict to other parts of Europe. However, since it had no legal basis for non-intervention since the Neutrality Act of 1935 only allowed this with conflicts between nation-states, the U.S. resorted to a “moral embargo” urging its citizenry to observe its policy of refraining from involvement in the internal affairs of other countries. However, since the moral embargo was not a congressional act, the United States government was compelled to issue licenses for the exportation of airplanes and engines amounting to over $ 2.7 million to the Republican government in Madrid. To provide a permanent solution to this predicament, the United States Congress legislated a joint resolution specific to the Spanish civil war, which prohibited the exportation or arms and munitions from the U.S.9 The United States and Great Britain were both preoccupied with their respective difficulties during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Their immersion into their own economic and political state of affairs during this period resulted in a minimal effort of cooperation, which might have prevented World War II. This allowed the consolidation of Fascist power, and alliances were created between Spain, Italy and Germany. The hiatus which Anglo-American relations went through during the interwar years gave the Fascists the opportunity to create their niche and expand their power and influence in the western hemisphere. Interaction and the cooperative spirit began to increase by 1939. The end of the Depression and Roosevelt’s expressed intolerance for totalitarianism and proposals for rearmament gave encouragement to the British government. Roosevelt recognized that Britain had no one to turn to except the United States. The British government’s decision to end appeasement in 1939 also pleased the Americans. Churchill did what it takes to acquire American support and commitment, which translated into a series of legislations in the U.S. that sustained the beleaguered British nation, which was later, found itself alone in Europe and in danger of Nazi invasion.10 The British and Americans also shared a common view of the Japanese threat, which was in part racist. They perceived the Japanese as vermin, which was similar to how the Nazis considered the Jews in Europe. This resulted to a dangerous underestimation of Japanese intentions and capabilities, which the two countries paid for at a very high price. As the prospect of war became imminent, the Great Britain and the U.S. began to shore up for the conflict. War finally broke out with Hitler’s invasion of Poland. It was a case of déjà vu as Britain and the U.S. found them on the same side. The United States with Roosevelt knew that Britain could only rely on the United States. As the German juggernaut rolled into Europe, Roosevelt called Congress to a special session to revise the neutrality acts. This move was designed to enable France and Britain to purchase American arms on a “cash-and-carry” basis despite the objection of those in favour of continued American isolation, the cash-and-carry policy was enacted. With the fall of France in 1940 and Britain standing alone to stem the Nazi tide, Roosevelt convinced Congress to beef up American defence preparations to support Britain who was left alone to fight the Germans. Fifty old destroyers were purchased by Britain on the fall of the same year. In payment, Britain gave the United States eight naval bases. This became known as the “destroyers for bases” policy.11 Britain had monetary problems by early 1941, so the United States allowed acceptance of non-cash payments for military and other forms of aid to Britain and her allies. The navy also provided protection for lend-lease shipments to Britain and was instructed to fire on German submarines. In August 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill issued a joint statement known as the Atlantic Charter. They pledged their countries to the objective of realizing “the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny.” This statement relinquished territorial expansion and upheld the principles of national self-determination, freedom of the seas, freedom from want and fear, greater economic opportunities, and the disarmament of all aggressor nations.12 Conclusion Anglo-American relations are about to enter into its first century since it gained ground and strength in the second decade of the 20th century. As it went through periods of good and mostly rough times, the relationship remained amiable if not actively friendly. This special relationship had not only helped shaped British and United States governments, polices and economies, but also influenced the shaping of the world as we know it today. America was the new industrial power as Britain slowly eclipsed into the background. However, Britain’s position as an ally became increasingly important to the United States as it gradually emerged out of isolation. American approval, resource and finance were important factors in the enforcement of British policies in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Today, the same complementation remains between both nations as they face new challenges. Bibliography Cohen, Michael J. The Origins and Evolution of the Arab-Zionist Conflict. University of California Press, Berkeley. 1987. Dimbleby, David and David Reynold. An Ocean Apart: The Anglo-American Relationship on the Eve of War. Random House. 1988. Edwards, Jill. Anglo-American Relations and the Franco Question, 1945-1955. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. McDonough, Frank Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement. Cambridge University Press. 2002. Murphy, Bruce Allen. Brandeis/Frankfurter Connection, the secret political activities of two Supreme Court justices. Anchor Books. 1983. Peterson, H.C. "Propaganda as the Cause of War." Americas Entry into World War I. Ed. Herbert J. Bass. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. 30-38. Segev, Tom. One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, Henry Holt and Co. 2000. Stokesbury, James. A Short History of World War II. Harper Paperbacks January 1, 1980. Tansill, Charles C. "War Profits and Unneutrality." Americas Entry into World War I. Ed. Herbert J. Bass. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. 39-52.  The Great Depression, compiled and prepared by Carey Nelson. Modern American poetry. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/depression/depression.htm Wilson, Woodrow. Message to Congress, 63rd Cong., 2d Session, Senate Doc. No. 566 (Washington, 1914), pp. 3-4. Read More