Medical Theories Connected with Ethics and Decision-making Rights - Assignment Example

Web Report Chapter 5 Utilitarian Theories A controversial topic published by the School of Medicine of the of Virginia delved into Ethical Considerations in the Use of Laboratory Animals for Research and Teaching at the University of Virginia. The study focused the philosophical theories the attempt to explain the moral status of the use of animals in biomedical research. The utilitarian theory is one among four theories (the other three are deontology, kinship and organic unity) which was assessed to determine the ethical implications of the topic. Accordingly, the utilitarian theory emphasizes “choosing the action that will bring about the greatest good for the greatest number of individuals.” (University of Virginia, 2010, par. 5) In this regard, three sub classifications of utilitarianism are distinguished to justify the use of animals in biomedical research. The classical utilitarianism was noted as “as a popular justification for using animals in biomedical research, by making the argument that the benefits gained (e.g. development of vaccines for deadly diseases) from using animals outweighs the pain and suffering that animals must endure. The scientific community has relied most heavily on this philosophical premise as moral justification for the use of animals in research and teaching.” (par. 5) This utilitarianism version was further compared with two contemporary versions identified as the rule and pluralistic view of philosophy. The rule utilitarianism “sets rules which must be followed in order to maximize the good. According to the Hastings Center Report, rule utilitarianism reasons that an action may be wrong, even though it produces more benefit than harm, if it violates a rule that would, in general, yield better overall consequences. Pluralistic utilitarianism recognizes that there is often more than just pleasure to be maximized.” (University of Virginia, 2010, par. 6) The utilitarian theories, particularly the pluralistic view justified the use of animals for biomedical research in a way that lives of human beings have greater value than those of animals. In this regard, the moral implications of animals’ pain and suffering during the medical research are superseded by the benefits that humans would ultimately derive from it. Works Cited: Hastings Center Report (May/June, 1990). "Introduction: The Troubled Middle in Medias Res", pp. 2-32. Retrieved 20 Feb. 2010. < http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/ccm/ethics/ethics.cfm> University of Virginia, School of Medicine. (2010). Ethical Considerations in the Use of Laboratory Animals for Research and Teaching at the University of Virginia. Retrieved 20 Feb. 2010. < http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/ccm/ethics/ethics.cfm> Web Report Chapter 6 Kant’s Theory Religious Studies Online examined Kant’s Theory in Detail by presenting a synthesis on his theories, categorized to wit: (1) The Good Will and Duty; (2) Free Will, God and Immortality; (3) Synthetic A Priori; (4) The Categorical Imperative – Universalisability, Law of Nature, and Ends and Means. Kant’s theory was premised on his belief that no outcome was inherently good. Further, he averred that “pleasure or happiness could result out of the most evil acts.  He also did not believe in ‘good’ character traits, as ingenuity, intelligence, courage etc. could all be used for evil.” (Religious Studies Online, n.d., par. 1) His contention was that through reason, a determination of one’s duty can be made. Kant also believed that God is the basis for moral actions. His Synthetic A Priori explains man’s actions according to a set of rules where reason is applied prior to experience. The discourse emphasized that The categorical imperative, stated in the aforementioned ways, “could be seen as a rational justification for following the golden rule that is the cornerstone of Christian morals.” (par. 15) One of the more famous views of ethics is primarily about the rights and duties of agents, which take precedent over individual feelings or inclinations, the wishes of the majority, or utilitarian calculations about what would make most people happy. Rights trump the pursuit of goods. There are fundamental principles and duties that restrain self-interest. Ethical systems in this tradition include the philosophy of Kant and John Rawls. Ethics explores the theoretical foundations of moral theology. It searches oneself before making a decision and taking action. The various schools and thought and concepts written about ethics provide the appropriate tool to guide a person in his decision making process. Work Cited: Religious Studies Online. (n.d.) Kant’s Ethical Theory in Detail. Retrieved 20 Feb. 2010. < http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/kant/> Unit 6: Approaches covered in Chapters 5 and 6 Look over all the approaches weve covered in Chapters 5 and 6.  Choose one approach that impressed you and share your reasons why with the rest of us.  Dont feel like you have to agree with everything in the theory.  In fact, feel free to share the areas where you agree and the areas where you dont. A person is always faced with options in before making decisions. Regardless of age, gender, nationality, profession, religious affiliation or other demographic considerations, the concepts of ethics apply. In general, the study of ethics has intrigued the faculties of scholars since early philosophers and ethicists during the times of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, to name a few. Ethics is defined as “branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions.” (Dictionary.com, 2010, 1) These ethical standards governing the existence of human life also encompass the realm of business entities, especially on reportorial requirements utilizing generally accepted principles of accounting, auditing and finance. Based on the underlying definition of ethics, one should examine the rules that govern human action and the goods one is seeking in life. One of the philosophies closely examined by Socrates was that business is directly linked with social responsibility in terms of being able to take into account the satisfaction of human wants more than the concern for profit. Another of Socrates’ business philosophies encompass the subject of management which he averred as “a respectable calling which both men and women can legitimately pursue”. (Bragues, 2009, 1) Further, Socrates defined a good manager utilizing a relevant set of virtues incorporating personal advancement and moral excellence. A core component of management, in this regard, is the recognition for ethical conduct. The hospital has the obligation to render appropriate medical service to ensure that their patients receive the necessary treatment to improve their health conditions. However, it is also the responsibility of the patients and their families to pay for all the medical services to ensure that the hospital would sustain their resources for the efficient delivery of health care in the present and in the future. If the hospital would consistently allow patients to accumulate amounts payable for services that were already rendered, eventually, the resources of the hospital would not be enough to sustain the delivery of future health care of other patients. Works Cited: Bragues, G. (2009). Socrates on Management: An Analysis of Xenophon’s Eocenomicus. Retrieved 20 Feb. 2010. < http://philpapers.org/rec/BRASOM> Dictionary.com. (2010). Definition of ethics. Retrieved 20 Feb. 2010. < http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ethics> Unit 5: Case Study Should Donald be allowed to go home to die?  Should he be kept in the hospital and treated against his wishes, in hopes that his feelings might change later?  How would each of the theories tend to argue would be the morally right or best thing to do?  Why? Egoism Theory tends to say that the family should be allowed to go home to die because it is based on the theory that each person should do whatever promotes their own best interests; this becomes the basis for moral choices. As Donald thinks that it is to his best interest to die than live blind and crippled, then the family members must respect his wishes. The theory sets as its goal the benefit, pleasure, or greatest good of the oneself alone. Under this theory, Donald has decided that it is better for him to go home and die rather than face the world in the condition he is in. This becomes the basis for his moral choice – as he decides death is better than living in the disable situation he is. Act Theory tends to say that the family should keep Donald in the hospital and treated against his wishes because it maintains that the right thing to do is the action that produces the greatest possible good for the greatest number. If Donald remains in the hospital, it would give his mother the opportunity to uplift her emotions by making sure that his son is alive. In addition, this would benefit the doctor who wanted to try the new surgical techniques that Dr. Macon had devised and hopes that Donalds case would bring some attention from the media that would help to build a new burn unit at the hospital. Rule Utilitarian Theory tends to say that the family should keep Donald in the hospital because this is the right thing to do. This view is evaluated by rules that, if universally followed would lead to the greatest good for the greatest number. Using this theory, the rule that is followed is that no one is left to die if every possible means can be done to make one live. The theory of euthanasia is not allowed because it is morally wrong. By following what is morally right, then the greatest good would have been served for the greatest number. It would benefit the mother and the doctor, as well as Donald, who could hope for recovery using Dr. Macon’s new therapeutic procedures. Consquential Theory tends to say that the family should keep Donald in the hospital because keeping him there would accord him the chance to recover and is therefore consistent with the base morality on the results and outcomes of behaviors. Actions with good consequences are seen as morally good; actions with bad consequences are considered morally bad. Aside from giving Donald the chance to recover by keeping him in the hospital, the action would also give Dr. Macon the opportunity to Keeping Donald in the hospital gives him the chance to try the new surgical techniques that Dr. Macon had devised and hopes that Donalds case would bring some attention from the media that would help to build a new burn unit at the hospital – both seen as morally good. On the other hand, Clementine’s contention that Donald should be left to die, as he wishes is not consistent with possible resulting in good consequences – therefore the action is considered morally bad. Further, there is the possibility that she was intent on getting the $100,000 she was in line to get from Donalds life insurance. Utilitarian Theory tends to Utilitarian theories tends to say that the family should keep Donald in the hospital because it emphasizes the aim of producing the greatest possible good for the greatest possible number. Like the rule utilitarian, by following what is morally right, then the greatest good would have been served for the greatest number. It would benefit the mother and the doctor, as well as Donald, who could hope for recovery using Dr. Macon’s new therapeutic procedures. Read More