The Virtuous Man as Defined by Plato and Aristotle - Term Paper Example

The Virtuous Man as Defined by the Ancients One of the primary difficulties in studying the concept of virtue lies in determining just exactly how this term is to be defined. It is important to understand that the definition of virtue as it is considered by philosophers does not merely constitute a choice between right and wrong behavior. The dictionary defines the term “virtue” as “a particular moral excellence” (Merriam-Webster, 2008) and the term “morality” as “moral quality or character; rightness or wrongness, as of an action” (Neufeldt, Goralnik, 1994, p. 882). Even this much of an explanation is unclear, though, as terms such as “excellence,” “moral quality” and “moral character” have yet to be defined and are potentially defined differently depending upon the answer to yet another question – what is the greatest good? Without knowing the definition of the greatest good, it is very difficult to determine with any certainty what is right and what is wrong. However, once “good” is defined, everything else becomes much easier. Right will then be identified as that thing that brings one closer to the greatest good while wrong pushes the greatest good further away. This, then, is where the philosopher steps in, helping to not only discover the best theory of right conduct and the good life (what we will call virtuous), but also to help shape our understanding of the practice of right conduct and the good life (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 31). Much of how the West thinks about itself and about science was formulated by the words of our earliest known philosophers. These would be Socrates, whose thought was recorded by Plato; Plato, who took the words of Socrates and developed his own system of thought; and Aristotle, who, like his teacher Plato, took the words of his mentor and developed his own way of looking at the world. As seen in the writings of Plato regarding Socrates, which some will argue is a blending of the two philosophers’ ideas, one of the requirements for a virtuous man is that he must first know “his spiritual self as it really is, including all its shortcomings, strengths and potentialities” (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 32). As Plato was a disciple of Socrates and the source of much of the information we have regarding much of what this man had to say, Socrates’ concept of virtue is relevant to an understanding of Plato’s views. According to Socrates, it is the man who does not know himself who cannot accurately judge his own capabilities and his own unique path to the greatest good based on accurate use of his strengths and knowledge of his weaknesses. Socrates takes this another step by suggesting that knowledge of oneself will instruct from within regarding those things which are good (virtuous) and those things which are not. He suggests this by claiming that things that are good will make us feel happy inside while things that are bad will be immediately recognizable to the man who knows himself because these actions will cause “spiritual degradation and mental deterioration” (Sahakian, Sahakian, 1966, p. 33) that will be immediately apparent. Socrates’ most famous student, Plato, pulled together the ideas of his mentor and Pythagoras to combine them with his own response to what he’d seen of the world to develop his Theory of Forms, in which the ultimate goal was to progress through the levels of reality to the highest level, also known as the greatest good. This is presented as the Allegory of the Cave in Book 7 of The Republic. As is seen in this allegory, Plato does not view reality as being the world of substance and things that we can see in everyday life, but is something more abstract that can only be obtained through intellectual thought. In determining the path to the greatest good, Plato differs from Socrates in the proper method of obtaining that level. Where Socrates says it is through right action, Plato says it is through correct thought (Strathern, 1996, p. 25). In the case of humans, this perfect form is commonly identified as the soul, which, existing in the realm of ideals, begins in a perfect state and can only be harmed by the wrong actions defined by Socrates (Magee, 1998, p. 29) or by the wrong thoughts according to Plato. Admittedly, this is a fine line of distinction as action typically follows thought, but it remains an important distinction nonetheless as thought does not always precede action and action can take place without full agreement in thought. Thus, the virtuous man emerges as the man who continues to work toward the greatest good by attempting to discover the definition of the greatest good and constantly striving toward it. Aristotle’s definition of virtue is slightly different from this approach, beginning with his ideas regarding the concept of courage, which is a state that exists somewhere between fear and recklessness. Fear, according to Aristotle, is a natural reaction against things that are evil to all men, but he cautions that it can often be ascribed to the wrong thing at the wrong time for the wrong reasons and in the wrong place. While a courageous man is one who “will face them as he ought and as the rule directs, for honor’s sake; for this is the end of virtue” (Book 3, Chapter 7), Aristotle makes a distinction between the courageous man who faces true danger and the one who simply faces imagined concerns. “For the brave man feels and acts according to the merits of the case and in whatever way the rule directs” (Book 3, Chapter 7). In order to be truly courageous, then, a man must be individually willing to face the fearful evils of life, which works out to be primarily death, toward a noble outcome by his own choosing rather than being forced to confrontation with less fearful things. The chief concern is to do what is noble. Aristotle says, “But to die to escape from poverty or love or anything painful is not the mark of a brave man, but rather of a coward; for it is softness to fly from what is troublesome, and such a man endures death not because it is noble but to fly from evil” (Book 3, Chapter 7). Through this definition of what constitutes a courageous man, Aristotle also begins to illustrate the elements that comprise a virtuous man. In the above description of courage, he continues to emphasize the concept of a noble cause. “Courage is noble. Therefore the end also is noble; for each thing is defined by its end. Therefore it is for a noble end that the brave man endures and acts as courage directs” (Book 3, Chapter 7). In describing the actions of the courageous man, Aristotle begins to define his concept of a noble cause when he indicates that the man with courage walks a road of moderation; he “holds the middle, which is the right, position” (Book 3, Chapter 7). The courageous man will be led by his courage to adopt the middle road and face all issues frankly. He takes his time to evaluate trouble for himself before considering fear and then faces the fear as a matter of honor and nobility, which emerge as key aspects of a virtuous character. In describing the five lesser types of courage he can identify within his society, Aristotle singles out the concept of the citizen-soldier as being most comparable to his concept of true courage. “Citizen-soldiers seem to face dangers because of the penalties imposed by the laws and the reproaches they would otherwise incur, and because of the honors they win by such action … This kind of courage is most like to that which we described earlier, because it is due to virtue” (Book 3, Chapter 8). This form of courage is close to true courage and virtue because, as Aristotle points out, the ultimate goal of these individuals is to accrue honor and status; however, these individuals are also being compelled by others, through whatever means, to do what they should be compelled to do by nature and desire as a result of being virtuous. Because they are coerced rather than participating in activities as a result of true individual assessment and inner compulsion, those demonstrating courage in the ranks of military forces or other such social structures are a step removed from true courage and thus true virtuousness. Other types of lesser courage identified by Aristotle include courage through experience, courage through passion, courage through optimism and courage through ignorance. Tracing these levels of lesser courage from the top form of true courage through the bottom rung of courage through ignorance, Aristotle maps out the elements of a virtuous man. As was illustrated in the mere definition of courage, a virtuous man is one who does all things in moderation. He is neither fearful of unknown things nor is he fearless of all things, yet he is familiar with the feeling of fear and capable of assessing the danger and facing it. A virtuous man, through the very process of being virtuous, will inevitably be rewarded in some fashion appropriate to the elements concerned. This reveals the importance of honor and intellect in the makeup of a virtuous man. A straightforward, clear-eyed approach and a high degree of confidence is necessary to be virtuous and the need for intellect is further highlighted in the presentation of the courageous by ignorance. Thus, through the depiction of the courageous man, Aristotle presents an image of the virtuous man as a man of intellect, reason, moderation, confidence and commitment to doing what is honorable and good regardless of personal costs. While both Plato and Aristotle define a virtuous man as an individual who works toward the ‘greatest good’ or the ‘noble cause’, these two different terms can be defined in widely different ways while still pointing in a generally complimentary direction. Plato reports that Socrates felt the virtuous man was an individual who worked toward the greatest good by participating in actions and modifies this attitude slightly by defining the virtuous man as one who works toward the greatest good in thoughts, as the primary impetus to action. Aristotle took this idea one step further still, combining action and thought as he describes the virtuous man as one who has the right and noble thought backed up by the prudence and balance of the courageous man of action. Although the term remains poorly defined even today, the basic concepts of what determines a virtuous man have revolved around these ideas of right action, right thought and prudent behavior ever since. Works Cited Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. 350 BC. W.D. Ross (Trans.). March 24, 2008 Magee, B. The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK Publishing, 1998. Neufeldt, V. and Guralnik, D. (eds.) Webster’s New World Dictionary. New York: Prentice Hall, 1994. Plato. The Republic. A.D. Lindsay (Trans.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 360 BC (reprinted 1992). Sahakian, W. and Sahakian, M. Ideas of the Great Philosophers. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1966. Strathern, P. Plato in 90 Minutes. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996. Read More