The Daodejings View of the Ideal State - Literature review Example

The Daodejing: The Ideal and Good Governance. Daoism is one of the foremost schools of traditional Chinese thought, along with Confucianism. It has profoundly influenced Chinese philosophy and culture and spread to all parts of the world. Daoism is based on a short book called the Laozi, later accorded the title Daodejing, meaning ‘the Classic of the Way and its’ Virtue (Power),’ or ‘Way Power Book,’ which has the distinction of being the most translated work in world literature, second only to the Bible. (Chan. 2007). The Daodejing is attributed to Laozi, endures as several extant texts and can be considered to be a treatise on good government. Laozi, or Lao-Tzu, which means ‘Old Master,’ is credited with having written the Daodejing. His life is shrouded in the mists of legend. Sima Qian (145-86 B.C.), a court historian of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), gives a brief biography of Laozi in the Shiji (Records of the Historian). According to this, Laozi was born in Chu, a southern state in the Zhou dynasty, as Li Er. Laozi served as the keeper of the archival records at the imperial court of Zhou, which implies that he may have been skilled in astrology and divination. In this capacity, Laozi is said to have been consulted by Confucius on matters of ceremonies. Laozi is reputed to have reprimanded Confucius for his pride, and to have been praised by Confucius for his wisdom. Laozi propagated Daoism until he was eighty and then, disillusioned with the decline of the Zhou, departed westward from China, riding an ox. According to legend, a purple cloud hovered over him and his journey is termed ‘the Purple Cloud from the East.’ At the Hank Pass, a border official called Yin Xi requested him to put down his teaching in writing. Laozi composed the Daodejing and departed for an unknown destination. The debate continues as to whether Laozi was a legend and whether the Daodejing is a compendium of texts compiled by several authors. However, the date of the Laozi is generally acknowledged to be the fourth century B.C. (Chan. 2007). Several manuscript versions of the Daodejing exist, including the texts of Wang Bi (226-249 A.D.) and Heshanggong (179-157 A.D.). The book consists of 5,000 characters and is divided into two parts and 81 chapters, or sections. Part one, with chapters 1-37, is called the Dejing (Classic of Virtue), while Part two, with chapters 38-81, is called the Daojing (Classic of the Way). In 1973, two Laozi silk manuscripts were discovered at Mawangdui, near Changsha in the Hunan province in a tomb sealed in 168 B.C. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb in Guodian, Jingmen City, Hubei province, near the old capital of the state of Chu, dated about 300 B.C., led to the discovery of a text of the Daodejing written on bamboo slips. This is referred to as the Guodian Bamboo Slip Laozi. There were 800 long, slender strips of bamboo, of which 730 were inscribed with primitive Chinese characters in a Chu script, written vertically, from top to bottom. The strips were woven together in a certain order with leather thongs and rolled into three bundles. Group A contains thirty-nine bamboo slips, which correspond in whole or in part to the following chapters of the present text: 19, 66, 46, 30, 15, 64, 37, 63, 2, 32, 25, 5, 16, 64, 56, 57, 55, 44, 40 and 9. Groups B and C are smaller, with eighteen (chs. 59, 48, 20, 13, 41, 52, 45, 54) and fourteen slips (chs. 17, 18, 35, 31, 64), respectively. (Chan. 2007). There are several approaches to the study of the Laozi, which was a distinct response to the social and political life of the China of those times. It is generally considered to be a philosophy of life. However, many judge the Daodejing to be primarily a political treatise, as many of its’ precepts are concerned with government and with peace and sociopolitical order. The Daodejing can be considered “an ethical and political masterpiece intended for the ruling class, with concrete strategic suggestions aimed at remedying the moral and political turmoil engulfing late Zhou China” (Chan. 2007). In its’ advice to council rulers, the Daodejing becomes a philosophy with a direct and practical political message. The renowned philosopher and political theorist, Han Feizi, who was a counselor to the first Emperor of China, Qin Shihuangdi (221-206 A.D.), used the Daodejing as a guide to the unification of China. (Littlejohn. 2006). The Daodejing advocates several measures to bring about the ideal State, ruled by a good government. The Daodejing’s view of the ideal state is one in which people live in peace and contentment, leading a life of simplicity, which is devoid of ambition and desire. In this context, chapter 3 of the Daodejing advocates the preemption of rivalry, envy and competition among the people. This is done by not elevating the stature of the more talented, by not exhibiting wealth and not encouraging the active participation of the more crafty in affairs of state. When people’s hearts are empty of desire and covetousness, their resolves are strengthened and their basic needs met, the ideal state will materialize and “all thing will be in order” (Ch. 3). The ideal state is one which is governed by the tenets of the Dao. (Ch. 60). Laozi’s conception of the great or ideal state is one which consolidates its power through the upliftment of its own people, without being defensive, or interfering in the affairs of other states. This is clearly stated in Chapter 61. When a great state makes concessions to smaller states, it becomes the center of influence and gains adherents who solicit its protection and aid. In return, it gains access to the services of the smaller states. In Chapter 80, the Daodejing unequivocally declares that it is contentment which is the bedrock of the ideal state, which should preferably be a small country with a low population. In such a state, the people are self-sufficient. Their love of the simple pleasures and comforts of home keeps them content in their own lands. They accept the inevitability of death and are therefore not restless in futile attempts to evade it. They possess the means of transport and arms, but do not feel the need for their use. They are so perfectly content with the simplicity and charm of their own way of life, that even places in the near vicinity hold no attraction for them. The Daodejing is filled with practical, clear-cut advice for rulers in order to bring about good governance. Laozi’s basic definition of the ideal ruler is the ‘sage ruler,’ who remains a part of his state, and, at the same time, manages the affairs of the country with the minimal of interference. The wise ruler keeps his people devoid of envy and desire, gives them no opportunity to employ their cunning, and fulfills their basic needs. (Ch. 3). Laozi’s ideal ruler is the one who shuns publicity and self-aggrandizement. He governs so subtly that his presence is hardly felt by his subjects. Next in line is the ruler who is known and loved by his people, followed by the ruler who is feared and, finally, the ruler who is despised and invites rebellion. By reposing trust in his subjects, the good ruler makes them trustworthy. The good ruler emphasizes action over empty promises. His presence is so unobtrusive that, when a task is accomplished, his subjects will tend to take the credit for it and declare that “all comes about by itself” (Ch. 17). In Chapter 26, the wise ruler is characterized by a tranquility which ensures that he is content to remain within the bounds of his own kingdom. It is his gravitas and stillness which form the basis of his power. It is through self-mastery that he masters his people. The Daodejing urges the wise ruler to accept the world as it is and not make futile attempts to change it to suit his needs. The natural differences in the characters of men and the inevitable changes of time and circumstances must be accepted. The Daodejing is unequivocal in its abhorrence of the use of violence to attain dominance: “He never takes over by force” (Ch. 30). Violence tends to rebound on its user and is opposed to the Dao. The wise ruler uses violence only as a last resort, and does not rejoice in the slaughter of the enemy. (Ch. 31). In Chapter 57, Laozi gives forthright directions to the ruler on “the right way to govern the state.” Restrictions increase poverty, weapons promote strife, laws increase the number of lawbreakers. The ruler who embraces non-intervention promotes peace and prosperity. In Chapter 58, the Daodejing directly links a relaxed government to the happiness of the people and goes on to reassert this dictum by declaring that governance is comparable to “frying a small fish. You spoil it with too much poking” (Ch. 60). Like cooking, governance should not be overdone. The wise ruler remains humble before his subjects and leads them by supporting them from behind. His touch is so light, that it is not felt to be a burden. (Ch. 66). Even more explicitly, the Daodejing exhorts the good ruler to leave his subjects alone, as it is high taxes which bring about famine and harsh laws which encourage rebellion. (Ch. 75). At first reading, the Daodejing’s concept of the ideal state and good governance may seem to be rather controversial and to advocate an unrealistic, primitive, simplistic society. However, deeper study leads to an appreciation of the profundity of Laozi’s perception of the state and the ruler, and to the realization that much of it is founded on good, sound commonsense. Many of the Daodejing’s precepts remain as applicable in today’s world as they were in the China of the fourth century B.C. A state which is free of coercive activity, with people who are content with their lot, is obviously a happy state: ‘There’s no place like home,’ is the ultimate accolade which a citizen can give to his country. Violence does beget violence. Poverty and sorrow are the natural consequences of war. Envy and rivalry do promote strife. A great leader is one who leads by example. Competition does lower achievement. Self-sufficiency is the tried formula to success. The tyrant foments rebellion. Taxes stimulate the search for off-shore tax havens. Moreover, the Daodejing’s advice to the ruler is in no way simplistic: it is a veritable lesson in the subtle art of manipulation. It encourages the ruler to suppress cunning, prevent the development of rival power centers and keep the citizen isolated from exposure to alternative ways of life. It advocates defense as a sounder strategy than aggression. Any discussion of the Daodejing’s concepts of the ideal state and good governance must, of necessity, be taken in conjunction with the principles of the Dao. The Dao connotes natural laws and principles; the De is the virtue which connotes the spontaneous, creative capacity originally inherent in human beings; guan connotes naturalness or spontaneity, or letting things be themselves; wuwei, or non-action connotes a spontaneous action which allows every being to be its’ natural self: it does not imply the absence of action. (Chan. 2007). In this context, the ideal political order is that which is founded on the Dao. The ideal political state is that which moves with the natural flow of things. The ideal “sage ruler” rids himself of selfish desires for power and wealth, whose consequences are war, cruel punishments and heavy taxation. In conclusion it can be said that the Daodejing advocates a natural sociopolitical order as the ideal, as this will ensure that every individual, free from oppression, will be given the opportunity to explore his inherent potential and live life to the fullest. Works Cited. Chan, Alan. Laozi. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2007 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Accessed on 8 March 2008 from < http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2007/entries/laozi/ > Littlejohn, Ronnie. Laozi (Lao-Tzu). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006. Accessed on 8 March 2008 from < http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/laozi.htm > Read More