In What Ways Can Psychoanalysis be Used as a Form of Critical Theory - Book Report/Review Example

Running Head: psychoanalysis be used In what ways can psychoanalysis be used as a form of critical theory Discuss, with specific reference to at least two theorists [Writer's Name] [Intuition's Name] In what ways can psychoanalysis be used as a form of critical theory Discuss, with specific reference to at least two theorists In broad terms the influence f psychoanalysis has produced two major variants. This first f these is 'Freudian' feminist, who are inclined to stress the prior (pre - linguistic) importance f the mother. (Beasley, C (1999). The second groupings draw upon the work f Jacques Lacan, an interpreter f Freud's analytic method which provides a linguistic view f Freud. The influence f Lacan in the perspectives f feminists marks a move away from 'the real world' towards comparatively abstract philosophical analysis f culture and specifically towards the symbolic - cultural meaning encoded in language. (Beasley, C (1999). Therefore in broad terms, Lacanian feminist thought is anti-realist, in that it tends to present language and culture as shaping how 'reality' is experienced, whereas realists tend to perceive 'the real' as shaping culture. According to Lacan, 'civilization' itself is the 'Law f the Father'. (Beasley, C (1999). Whether you believe in his theories or not, most people would agree that Sigmund Freud is one f the greatest thinkers f modern time. His development f psychoanalysis and the contributions he has made to the study f mental illness is immense. Although he completed most f his work in the early years f last century, he is still hugely influential to this day. Despite this success, or perhaps due to it, Freud's ideas have always been very controversial. His postulations on human psychological growth resulted in his theory f psychosexual development (S, Freud (1977). His ideas were particularly contentious at the initial time f release, and frequently are considered so, to this very day. The primary reason for any initial negative reaction was due to the often-strong sexual content f his work. Freud suggested that powerful incestuous sexual desires exist in all f us, including infants. (Gay, P ed. (1995). His opinions raised a few eyebrows in Victorian Europe, not to mention the feminist perspective to this day. Freud's work has been criticised immensely by feminists, on the manner in which he inaccurately differentiates between the psychological growth and maturity f males, and that f females. Many people have argued that this was very much due to the era in which Freud had operated, with the medical field in which he worked at this time being largely a male only society. Thoughts from within this profession were apparently often very negative towards women. Whatever the reason, psychoanalysis and the theories developed from it, have always been considered extremely patriarchal and phallocentric. (Sayers, J. (1991). Many feminist's believe that the writings from most, if not all f the founding fathers from science and literature, including sometimes 'Marxist', was too male-cantered, containing andocentric male writings which held patriarchal values. According to Freud who has been argued by some feminists to be a biological determinist, claimed that it is our biology that shapes our identities, he claims 'Anatomy is destiny' (Gay, P ed. (1995). Not surprising that feminists accuse Freud f being misogynistic and male - cantered. However, modern supporters f psychoanalysis have denied that this is not so, female figures such as; Helene Deutsch, Karen Horney, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein are usually mentioned. (Sayers, J. (1991). Their significance within the society f psychoanalysis is meant to somehow convince us, that the doctrines f the group as a whole are not at all sexist. However, the involvement f women in the development f psychoanalysis as a theory and a therapy can be seen as a sort-f paradox in light f the various charges f misogyny against Freud. A brief historical look at four f the early female psychoanalytic scholars, and their areas f interest, will demonstrate the extent f their involvement in the field. The following information leads us to the conclusion that women were not simply "added" into the history f the discipline but were f the utmost importance in the development and extension f the theory f psychoanalysis. The first individual is Helene Deutsch who, in 1918, became the first woman to join Freud's Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Her focus was to give a psychoanalytic account f women's psychology and explore issues f mothering, menstruation and menopause, the on-set f female adolescence as well as narcissism in both males and females. Deutsch was an active member f the psychoanalytic community, giving presentations and writing the first psychoanalytic book devoted to women's sexuality (Sayers, 1991). Karen Horney, born in 1885, was the first individual to initiate a psychoanalytically-based critique f Freudian patriarchic. She developed the concept f womb envy, as a sort f counter to Freud's penis envy, and investigated the effects f sexual inequality and abuse on gender development. Horney is known for stressing the importance f social over instinctual determinants, especially in the area f a person's character development (Horney, 1926, Horney, 1935, & Sayers, 1991). The third individual is Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud's daughter. Anna did not have formal medical training and, therefore, was in some ways not able to enter the core psychoanalytic community. However, her work focusing on child analysis, ego psychology and the application f psychoanalysis to developmental psychology, pediatrics, law and social welfare, had a great impact on the extension f psychoanalysis into previously unexamined areas. She also became the editor and forerunner f journals that dealt with psychoanalysis, education and children (Sayers, 1991). Finally, Melanie Klein, who was a leader and prominent member f the British Psychoanalytic Society for many years, focused on early childhood experiences as well as psychoanalytically treating schizoid splitting and depression. (J, Sayers, 2000). Perhaps what Klein is most famous for is the development f the object-relations school, which gathered a large following and continues to have a great impact on current psychoanalytic theory. This condensed version f the history f four f the early female psychoanalytic scholars demonstrates that the innovative thinking f these individuals was f the utmost significance in the expansion and development f psychoanalytic therapy and theories. They were active in the academic communities and often gained the utmost respect f fellow scholars, even, in some cases, f Freud himself (Sayers, 1991). So why is it that these women became so involved with such a phallocentric, patriarchal and misogynistic way f thought In the introduction to her compilation f Freud's writings entitled, 'Freud on Women: a reader' (1990), Elisabeth Young-Bruehl states that the general feminist critique launched against Freud is that he views femininity as failed masculinity: "Females start out like males and then - disappointed in their mother-love, humiliated over their lack f a penis, self-deprived f their masturbatory pleasure - take a fall into femininity." (Young-Bruehl, 1990, p. 41). She asserts that this general criticism has been used for two very different purposes in feminist writings. Psychoanalysis is not outright rejected but rather altered in order to properly reflect women's psychological reality. On the other hand, the second purpose views the Freudian characterization f females as failed males as "...the deepest analysis available f the effects f patriarchy..." (p. 41). In this case, it is not psychoanalysis itself which is the focus but the reality it is reflecting - Western patriarchal structure - and, therefore, it is not an issue that can be addressed through any alteration f the theory but rather radical social reform Sigmund Freud himself admitted having great difficulty advancing a theory f psychological development for women. In Freud's, 'The Dissolution f the Oedipus Complex' (S, Freud (1961) one can find some seemingly very sexist remarks by Freud, 'The two wishes - to possess a penis and a child - remain strongly cathected in the unconscious and help to prepare the female creature for her later sexual role.' (p. 300). He continues on to speak f the female's 'aim-inhibited trends f the affectionate kind', thereby leading the reader to view the female as having her rightful sexual role f passive mothering in society. In such cases it is hard to argue that patriarchal notions f the female are not being expressed. As an interesting detail, however, soon after stating this he does admit to a certain amount f ignorance: '...in general our insight into these developmental processes in girls is unsatisfactory, incomplete and vague.' (p. 300). Repeatedly, his opinions on this matter are unclear, at best, or completely off the mark at worst, but at least Freud does recognize this. His writings display a fervent belief that young girls are unable to overcome the difficulties f the polymorphous perverse stages f development. (Gay, P ed. (1995). The result f which, according to Freud, is an inability to cope adequately with life, as an adult woman. This incapacity to prevail over the challenges f these early years, culminates in failure to mature emotionally, and often leads to hysteria in adulthood. (Nuttin, J. (1954). Bibliography Alsop, R, (2002) Theorizing Gender - Oxford: Polity Press, Ch 2 Beasley, C (1999) What is Feminism - London: Sage, Ch 6 Campbell, J (2000) Arguing with the Phallus - feminist, queer, and postcolonial theory - Zed Books Ltd: London Chodrow, N (1989) Feminism and the Psychoanalytical Theory - Cambridge: Polity Press. De Beauvoir, S (1983) The Second Sex (1949), trans. H.M. Parshley, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Foreman, A. (1978) Femininity as Alienation: women and the Family in Marxism and Psychoanalysis - Pluto Press Ltd S, Freud (1961) The ego and the Id; other works - the standard edition f the complete psychological works f Sigmund Freud, Volume: 19 - 1923-1925. S, Freud (1977) On Sexuality - Penguin Books Ltd. Gay, P ed. (1995) The Freud Reader - Vintage: London Gelb, L. A. (1973), Psychoanalysis and Woman: Contributions to a New Therapy, In Masculinity, Femininity. A Study in imposed Equality - New York: Brummer/ Mazel Publishers, 123 Mitchell, J (1974) 'Introduction', Psychoanalysis & Feminism - London: Allen Lane Nuttin, J. (1954) Psychoanalysis and Personality - London: Lowe and Brydone, 16. Porter, R. (1996) "An Assault on Jeffrey Mason," Debating Gender, Debating Sexuality - NYU Press: 283. Rose, J (1986) Sexuality in the Field f Vision - London: Verso Sayers, J. (1991) Mothering Psychoanalysis. London: Hamish Hamilton Ltd, Sayers, J. (2000) Klienians: Psychoanalysis Inside Out - Cambridge: Polity Smith D. (1987) Women's Perspective as a Radical Critique f Social Theory in Harding S (Ed). Feminism and Methodology. Milton Keynes: Open University Press Tong, R (1992) Feminist thought: A Comprehensive Introduction - London: Routledge, Ch 2 & 5. Weedon, C (1997) Feminist Practice and Poststructuralist Theory - Oxford: Blackwell, Ch 3. Young-Bruehl, E Ed, (1990) 'Freud on Women: a reader' - Vintage: London Read More