Analyzing Epictetus Major Works - Essay Example

? The World as Evil and The Weaknesses of People in Epictetus’ Dis s and Enchiridion The World as Evil and The Weaknesses of People in Epictetus’ Discourses and Enchiridion The 1st century Greek philosopher Epictetus is one of the ancient founders of stoicism, or the philosophical thought founded on the idea that men are disturbed not by the things that happen to them but by their opinion of these things. These things on which they form their opinions are usually those things of which they have no control. However, since people generally do not know this weakness in them, they tend to act otherwise and are easily subdued by what is negative. Both works of Epictetus, the Discourses and the Enchiridion, seem to have been written on the following premise: The world is evil, people tend to be easily overcome by this evil, and thus tend to frustrate someone’s goals. In both the Discourses and the Enchiridion, Epictetus clearly implies that the world is indeed corrupt and that most people in it tend to do evil. According to Epictetus, “For the nature of man is not to endure to be deprived of the good, and not to endure the falling into the evil.”1 Man, for Epictetus, is born as one who cannot fight temptation. Man is therefore weak in terms of will. In fact, as Epictetus tells the reader what to do, he is trying to tell him that there is no other way to do good but for one to make decisions by himself and not to rely on anyone else. Epictetus thus implies that there is absolutely no one in this world who is spared from this tendency to falter in the face of evil. According to Epictetus, people are generally “indolent and negligent and sluggish.”2 People generally tend to evade duties and responsibilities not only in matters of physical labor but also in trying to cultivate reason. This claim, which Epictetus obviously derived from his observations of the Greeks, is also very much true nowadays. One can see jobless people around who keep putting blaming the government, their families, and many other things for their present unemployment. It is interesting to note, however, that Epictetus does not tell us to put the blame on other things but rather, if one is unemployed, one should blame himself for it. For Epictetus, this tendency towards indolence and sluggishness is somehow based on the idea that one lacks reason, and if one lacks reason, then it follows that one also lacks wisdom. For Epictetus, people generally lack wisdom. They may have wealth, children, a wife and many slaves, and everything else which is good in life but still they lack something. These people lack “the things necessary and the chief things for happiness.”3 This is wisdom. Wisdom is the one thing that helps one understand and determine what is good and what is bad and at the same time, teaches him to know himself better as well as the world in which he lives and interacts with others. Since wisdom is not easy to attain, people tend to “look externally to things which are independent of [their] will.”4 These people, since they lack wisdom, tend to worry about things that are beyond their control, such as “What would others think?” or “What would others say if I did this?” No matter how intelligent someone is, if he does not possess wisdom, he will, according to Epictetus, forever be swayed by his opinions of the things upon which he has no control. Therefore, if one lacks wisdom, one tends to change the unchangeable and simply accepts that which should be changed. The man of wisdom simply does the opposite. Without wisdom and reason, what does one expect himself to become? For Epictetus, the lack of wisdom and reason makes one either a sheep or a wild beast, which is what most people are. A sheep will naturally simply “act gluttonously…lewdly…rashly, filthily [and] inconsiderately,” while a wild beast would normally act “harmfully, passionately [and] violently.”5 The man who lacks rational faculties is therefore a man who is easily subdued by his feelings and emotions, and it is these feelings and emotions – and not he – who controls him and makes decisions for him. Around us we can see a lot of people who, because of passion and the thing called love, ended up in bad marriages, unwanted children and heinous crimes. There are also countless of people who, because either of a lack of rational faculty or this faculty was not at work at such a particular time, made unhealthy, dangerous and overly risky decisions that caused either their own reputations, their careers and families, and even their lives. For Epictetus, if one who lacks wisdom is overcome by pride, passion or any of the other emotions, what is inevitable is death or destruction. The lack of reasoning power and wisdom, Epictetus believes, makes people tend to be vengeful and passionate. For the Greek philosopher, “Passion overpowers the better council [and may thus result] in wars and civil commotions, and the destruction of many men and cities.”6 Although the previous passage may sound like a mere exaggeration from Epictetus – for one’s passion may not really have such outrageously disastrous effects on a national or global scale, the point is that big problems always have their roots in very small, almost insignificant causes. These causes lack wisdom and reason and are fueled by nothing but passion and vengeance. If, therefore, one allows himself to be overcome by passion and all other similar emotions, one may be able to cause a destruction which can be a thousand times greater than the emotion that has caused it. World wars and civil unrest – the ones we see on TV today – are, according to Epictetus, merely a result of unbridled passion and emotion, and naturally a lack of reason and wisdom. Passion fuels up the animal nature of man and instills in him a hunger for violence and superiority. According to Epictetus, as a result of a lack of wisdom, man naturally tends to be violent and unconsciously desires to be superior to his fellowmen, and that they believe in the proverb “Let the stronger always be superior to the weaker.”7 Epictetus believes that these violent people who want to subdue others somehow do not realize one thing – that it is entirely futile to prove one’s superiority over others by hurting them or taking away what they have. For the Greek philosopher, one’s superiority obviously cannot be gauged through violence, and in fact there are no scales upon which such superiority can be measured. Moreover, Epictetus reiterates in Book Four of the Discourses that “the wise and good man neither himself fights with any person, nor does he allow another, so far as he can prevent it.”8 Conversely, Epictetus implies that if one does not have wisdom, as many men are, then he tends to be quarrelsome and ferocious. For Epictetus, the mark of wisdom is living in accordance with reason, which is allowing others to live in the way they want, for based on stoic philosophy, one cannot possibly concern himself with another person’s affairs. Furthermore, superiority is a matter of opinion and thus cannot be proven through violence and control. In today’s world, we could see anywhere – from the news to the neighborhood – a whole lot of people trying to control others through violence and threat. One can see terrorist, religious and political leaders threatening the citizens with death or urging the whole country to rise up in arms against another nation. One may hate and condemn these so-called “evil” leaders for instilling hatred in people’s hearts. Nevertheless, for Epictetus, a political leader trying to control the citizens through violence is no different from a young man trying to force a girl to make love to him and threatening to leave her if she does not allow it. Epictetus’ stoic philosophy and his message in the Discourses and Enchiridion are not only a proclamation of the evil of this world but indeed a call for each person to examine himself and to ask whether he indeed possesses wisdom or he is just controlled by emotion. People who are overcome by their emotion and passion, according to Epictetus, tend to be selfish and greedy. A selfish man would naturally regard himself as separate from the community in which he lives and thus will simply desire: “…to live to an old age, to be rich, to be healthy [whereas a wise man would] consider [himself] a part of a certain whole [and] it is for the sake of the whole that at one time [he] should be sick…take a voyage and run into danger…and in some cases, die prematurely.”9 The passage above means that people generally tend to think only of themselves. They also tend to be greedy in their desire to possess riches, power, and beautiful women, and these consequently lead to jealousy, fear and indecency.10 Nevertheless, the second half of the passage also tells us that a man of wisdom and reason would naturally think of himself as an essential part of the group of people to which he belongs. He would therefore naturally feel obligated to perform his duties to his fellowmen accordingly. Although Epictetus somehow considers people as weak and as easily subdued by evil, this is no reason to hate or condemn them, for they deserve pity and not hatred for their ignorance.11 Every wise man naturally knows this. Nevertheless, for Epictetus, the reason for the greed and selfishness of man is not only a lack of wisdom but also a tendency towards materialism and corruption. Among the greatest of the evils that corrupt man and to which he succumbs is lust. In the Discourses, Epictetus explains that it is lust that destroyed both Paris and Achilles in the Odyssey. Achilles forgets that his mission in Troy is to battle against the Trojans and not to get a mistress. Indeed lust robs one of modesty, fidelity, hospitality and decency, and thus leads to his defeat and destruction.12 A man who is not conquered by lust and other similar emotions naturally recognizes his duty towards God, his family, his children and towards the free, noble and modest pursuit of things.13 Nevertheless, people generally tend towards materialism, as they admire externals and they are busy with externals. Thus they cannot recognize the immaterial gifts that they possess and that came from God – endurance, magnanimity, and manliness.14 Most of all, most people would equate purity only with physicality without realizing that true purity is about not making the soul “filthy and impure [with] bad opinions” and instead filling it with “proper opinions.”15 The biggest problem with being corrupted by lust and materialism, according to Epictetus, is, just like Paris and Achilles, one will inevitably stray away from one’s true purpose. He will therefore be distracted and will eventually fail in his goals. As man tends to corrupt himself through his lustful desires and bad opinions, he also tends to corrupt others. In the Enchiridion, Epictetus states that people naturally laugh and sneer at someone.16 They do this primarily because they want to be pleased.17 People also speak ill of their fellows.18 Furthermore, the world finds fault in those who it supposes to be wrong.19 One last negative thing about people is that they suppose it is their duty to harm another or to speak badly of him.20 Since the time of ancient Greece until now, we can see around us all kinds of criticisms, name callings, and all other insulting acts that seek to mar the reputation or destroy the life of a human being. For Epictetus, this human tendency to criticize and ridicule is natural, and thus people around an individual naturally serve as a hindrance to his goals. In fact, even the family can serve as a hindrance to one’s goals. Epictetus implies in the Discourses that even a father may not know wisdom and may leave his child in times of great trouble.21 Moreover, in the Enchiridion, Epictetus implies that one’s wife and child may in fact distract a man from his true goals in life, in that when the captain of the ship calls the man, he must still have to struggle to make up his mind to leave his family behind.22 Furthermore, one cannot expect that his father or brother will indeed be a good one.23 Family, therefore, according to Epictetus, is something that one cannot perfectly rely on in times of trouble, for just like everyone else, family members are people, and are therefore not spared from having all the negative tendencies that have just been mentioned. With the whole world evil and even with one’s family all acting as obstacles to one’s goals, what then is man supposed to do to save himself? The answer is wisdom and reason, for wisdom and reason, according to Epictetus, naturally lead one to the practice of stoicism. With reason and wisdom, one commands oneself to delay gratification: “Let the affair wait your leisure, and procure yourself some delay.”24 The main problem with people who are overcome with emotion is that they tend to be rash and impulsive in their actions, and thus suffer the consequences. A man of wisdom, however, does the opposite and possess the inner strength that he needs in order not to be overcome by his emotions. Moreover, a wise man also develops detachment to the externals and believes that he should “avoid public and vulgar entertainments [and] provide things relating to the body no further than mere use.”25 A wise man, thus, consciously does not choose materialism for he knows that it will just prevent him from achieving his true goals. A wise man is also one who is humble and one who humbly accepts reality. According to Epictetus, “Exercise, therefore, what is [only] in your control.”26 A man of wisdom naturally believes that there are two kinds of things in this world – things that he can change and those he cannot, perhaps at the moment and, in many cases, forever. Since a wise man knows that he cannot change those things that cannot be altered, then he simply focuses all his strength and energy only on those things he can change. He therefore not only avoids unnecessary stress but is able to move towards the fulfillment of his goals fast. Lastly, a wise man naturally develops inner strength. As Epictetus has written, “Don’t reduce yourself to [a grieving man’s] level and do not moan with him.”27 One therefore should not allow himself to be affected by the emotions of the people around him, and should be able to remain levelheaded and sane even in the face of extreme sadness or happiness. The ability of a wise man to view things objectively and not to react to it like a kid is indeed a sign of inner strength. One last thing about inner strength is that a man of wisdom naturally believes that “sickness is a hindrance to the body, but not to [one’s] ability to choose, unless that is [one’s] choice.”28 While the weak in spirit would bemoan their case, their ill health and their misfortunes in life and at the same time point at anything else on which to put their blame, a man of wisdom makes a conscious choice to do what he wants to do despite his sickness or any other physical impediment. Everything, for the wise man, is all about choice. Yes, he may be sick, but that does not mean that he cannot do anything anymore. Wisdom therefore is the only way for man to survive in a world which is naturally evil and which is filled with people who are naturally weak. Conclusion The Greek philosopher Epictetus’ Discourses and Enchiridion are both a testament to the corruption and evil of the world we live in and the natural tendency of people to succumb to this evil. These works of Epictetus also teach us that since people are negative, then they usually tend to act as an obstacle to the fulfillment of their own goals and those of others. People, according to Epictetus, tend to be indolent and sluggish, gluttonous or violent, vengeful and passionate, extremely competitive, selfish and greedy, materialistic and corrupt, and overly critical of their fellows. This is all because they lack the wisdom and reasoning power that is expected of them to develop in order to attain happiness. Therefore, in presenting the evil of the world and the inherent weakness of man’s spirit, the point of Epictetus’ works is a call for man to cultivate both wisdom and reason in order to survive in this world. In both works, Epictetus reiterates that man’s eventual salvation and survival lies only in himself and his faculties of reason and wisdom. With reason and wisdom, man is able to deal with this evil world and with people who are weak in spirit. The message of Epictetus, therefore, is that, despite the natural condition of the world and the naturally negative tendency of people, survival lies in one’s wisdom and reason, and these two faculties will lead the path to success. Endnotes 1. Epictetus, Discourses (2011): I.27, Trans. George Long, Constitution Society, http://www.constitution.org/rom/epicdisc.htm (accessed Aug. 24, 2011). 2. Ibid., I.7 3. Ibid., II.14 4. Ibid., III.2 5. Ibid., II.9 6. Ibid., I.28 7. Ibid., I.29 8. Ibid., IV.5 9. Ibid., II.5 10. Ibid., IV.9 11. Ibid., I.18 12. Ibid., I.28 13. Ibid., III.7 14. Ibid., II.16 15. Ibid., IV.11 16. Epictetus, Enchiridion (2011): 22, The Internet Classics Archive of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html (accessed Aug. 24, 2011). 17. Ibid., 23 18. Ibid., 33 19. Ibid., 35 20. Ibid., 42 21. Epictetus, Discourses, I.11 22. Epictetus, Enchiridion, 7 23. Ibid., 30 24. Ibid., 34 25. Ibid., 33 26. Ibid., 14 27. Ibid., 16 28. Ibid., 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY Epictetus. Discourses. Trans. George Long. (2011). Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/rom/epicdisc.htm (accessed Aug. 24, 2011). Epictetus. Enchiridion. (2011). The Internet Classic Archives of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html (accessed Aug. 24, 2011). Read More