Ontological argument - Rene Descartes - Research Paper Example

?Rene Descartes---Ontological Argument Module Module ID: PROSPECTUS OUTLINE: Ontological Argument Thesis Statement: Also stated as Evidentialism, the term Ontological argument magnificently elucidates the applying of reason in support of the existence of God. The notion is determined to present the significant evidence in order to prove that the certain signs of the presence of a regularity authority to control and exercise the affairs of the universe can be discovered with the help of empirical observation and applying senses in order to note that the concept in mind is inferior to the reality, which can be observed in the natural and physical environment. Objectives: 1. Elaboration of the famous doctrine of Ontological Argument in the light of the philosophies elaborated by the ancient early Christian scholar St. Anselm, eminent philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650), and his successor philosopher Nietzsche. 2. Evaluation of Descartes’ hypothesis and its impact on the future philosophic theories 3. To analyze whether Descartes’ doctrine was certainly the revolt against his contemporary religious and philosophical beliefs, or he imitated the footprints of his predecessors while articulating his rationalism 4. Significance of his theoretical framework he has articulated by elaborating the imperative implication of applying mind and ratifying the truthfulness of a phenomenon through in-depth observation and scientific evidence in order to accept or reject a theory or phenomenon 5. To note how his successor philosophers have adopted the Ontological Argument instead of following the blind imitation of already existing theories and beliefs in society Descartes Approach: I am determined to critically analyze Descartes’ Ontological Argument in the light of the doctrines articulated by Avicenna, St. Anselm and Nietzsche by the authors including Roger Ariew, John Hawthorne, John M. DePoe and Oppenheimer & Zalta. Since it is a basic research in nature and scope, I will seek support from the material discussing the philosophy of the Medieval and Classical Eras, where the paper will examine the existence of Ontological Argument in ancient times and influence of the Descartes’ doctrine on the future philosophers. The paper will also seek support from the philosophical contributions made by the later philosopher particularly Nietzsche and Voltaire, due to the very fact that the doctrines of both these philosophers resemble in theme and scope with Rene Descartes. One of the most astonishing points raised by Descartes, which invited anger and displeasure of his contemporary religious circles, is his determination to reject believing in such God, existence of Whom could not be proved through intellect, evidence and observation. The notion not only brought opposition of the religious dogmatism of his time, but also the philosophy kept on enjoying the status of a highly controversial treatise for the future centuries to come. Consequently, Descartes was aptly declared as rebel, pervert and rejecter of true Christian faith. However, he stuck to the validity of his argument, and laid stress upon the significance of empiricism for having faith in various spiritual, natural, physical and social phenomena. The present study will look into the influence of Descartes’ notion on the future scientific developments too, which vehemently emphasize upon the presence of sound proofs in order to examine the validity of a hypothesis. Descartes, in his works, argues that religious sets of faith should not be taken as mere imitation of the ideas which have blindly been adopted by a large number of one’ community members without applying one’s intellect. Rather, human brain contains the powers to prove the legality of God’s existence. He refutes the very idea of accepting some presumptions and propositions without analyzing their validity through intellectual capabilities and sound examinations. It is therefore, he lays stress upon the significance of doubtfulness about some specific belief. He is of the view that blind faith cannot make people understand the realities of life on the one hand and phenomena of nature on the other. His meditations are based on his theory that certain false and unproved presumptions get the form of particular beliefs to which people imitate and follow blindly without submitting intellect and seeking proof for this all. He is of the opinion that critical appreciation of any natural phenomenon wide opens countless avenues of vigilance and knowledge to man. If the universe contains realities regarding the Supreme Being, then why should one not examine and accept it to bring it before the world on pertinent intellectual foundations. “Descartes attempted to address the former issue via his method of doubt. His basic strategy was to consider false any belief that falls prey to even the slightest doubt.” (Skirry, 2008: Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Hence, he lays stress upon the point that nature offers man the evidence of the every existing object and it is his continuous contemplation based on his knowledge and mental capabilities to observe these objects through personal experience based on the principles of positivism. Hence, Descartes proves the existence of God on the basis of his meditation, observation as well as his thorough study of philosophy, theology and literature. His wonderful works under the title “Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy” reveals his sublime ideas and high intellect, he sustains. Descartes proceeded to strip away his knowledge base in order to determine the one indubitable fact, Cogito, ergo sum. From this absolute knowledge of his own existence, he set about deducing the existence of God through ontological argument. Descartes has introduced new and innovative dimensions of philosophic thoughtfulness, following of which wide opens new horizons of knowledge, wisdom and foresights to the seekers of justice, truthfulness and wisdom. Ontological Argument Attributed to one of the most distinguished Muslim philosophers of Medieval times Avicenna (980-1037), and Christian theologian and spiritual leader St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), ontological argument submits to state that divinity maintains profound testimonies of its existence, and hence can be proved and verified in the same manner as the numbers and their sum total can be shown and estimated with the help of imperative evidence and arguments at large in their favor. Ontology is a branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and relations of being. Ontology attempts to answer such questions like, “What is real?” Thus Anselm’s ontological proof attempts to answer the question of whether or not God is real. (Tisthammer, 2010) Saint Anselm of Canterbury offered several arguments in support of the existence of God in the famous ontological argument in Proslogium II. He is of the opinion that there is something such that nothing greater can be conceived by appealing to the fact that we understand the definite description ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. (Oppenheimer & Zalta, 1991) The notion further earned popularity during the seventeenth century onward, when famous French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650) presented the same notion in his theoretical framework. The philosopher argued that like mathematician equation, the existence of God can also be proved while presenting sufficient evidence in support of the same, because the universe maintains countless proofs in favor of the presence of its Creator. It is the humans to make investigation of the same through their senses and mental and spiritual capabilities in order to find out the evidences in support of the presence of the deity. Consequently, Descartes vehemently lays stress upon experiencing His existence in the light of one’s personal life, activities, qualities, abilities and traits at large. (Ariew, 2011: 2-5) The philosopher appears to be determined to reject the existence of such a deity provided it could not generate sound evidence of its very existence through the natural and physical phenomena existing all around the humans. (Ariew, 2011: 4) The magnificent work, produced by Descartes under the title “Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy” expresses his views in support of ontological argument by revealing the great philosopher’s inspirational thoughtfulness and lofty intelligence he had been gifted with. Descartes proceeded to strip away his knowledge base in order to determine the one indubitable fact, Cogito, ergo sum. From this absolute knowledge of his own existence, he set about deducing the existence of God through ontological argument. In our minds, the idea of God is one of an infinitely perfect Being. An infinitely perfect being must have existence; otherwise it would not be infinitely perfect. In other words, if the presence of God cannot be shown, there is no need to follow the religious belief about the existence of the deity at all. Since Descartes has developed unabated belief in the existence of an entity that has no concern with acquisitiveness and materialism, to which he stated as the spirit or soul confined in the body for some specific period of time in order to perform various acts through physical strength and appearance on the one hand, and in order to exhibit the manifest proof of the existence of soul on the other, he associates the creation and movement of soul and body as dependent of some regulatory authority to control and command the movement observed by various entities and independent bodies. His famous notion cogito ergo sum i.e. “I reflect, therefore I am” also reflects his ontological argument, where he seeks existence in the reflection of various natural and physical phenomena existing in the universe. In order to prove the existence of God, Descartes articulates three axioms, which include the following arguments: 1. There is at least as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in the effect of that cause. 2. Something cannot arise from nothing. 3. What is more perfect cannot arise from what is less perfect. (uky.edu) By explaining the three above mentioned axioms, the first one concentrates upon displaying relationship between cause and effect, where every cause produces effect, and every effect is the outcome of a certain cause eventually. Since countless products and entities exist in the universe, these are actually the outcome of cause(s) applied by the Supreme Being in order to maintain the peace and order on the one hand, and keep the motion of these entities on the other. Hence, the growth and development millions of entities experience in their everyday life turn out to be a powerful evidence of the existence of God. Descartes’ second axiom argues that something cannot arise from nothing. In other words, it is not the nothingness that could produce something. Since we have an innate idea about the infinity of God, such an idea has not come from nothingness. On the contrary, the very idea is actually the outcome of some reality, which surely exists in real life of the people. It is therefore, we have got the idea in our imagination. Had there no existence altogether, His image would have not got any place in human mind and imagination at all. For instance, the concept about the appearance, size, form and characteristics of several things and objects are actually the outcome of the real existence of these articles and things, which become the part of our imagination on the basis of their actual traits and nature. Since the darkness of nothingness could not give birth to the existence of something, the presence of God the Creator and Sustainer cannot be denied at any cost. It is therefore Descartes asserts that if the objective reality of an idea cannot come from me, it must come from something else. Hence, the existing objects leave their reflections and memories in mind, which become the part of imagination in future, and even the absence of these objects is unable to eliminate the images and concepts of the objects from (human) mind. The third axiom, articulated by Descartes in support of the existence of God, argues that a perfect or superior thing cannot be produced out of comparatively an inferior or imperfect thing. Hence, in order to investigate into the existence of an inferior thing, the presence of the superior objects producing the inferior one will also be taken into account. Since the idea and image of God is comparatively less sublime and imperfect than the real existence of God, He certainly has an existence, which reflects in human mind through the imagination of reality. As a result, the human mind perceives the concept of God with the help of countless phenomena present in the social and natural environment. Since God is the cause of our true perception about various objects, He also bestows the power to perceive the things within some specific perspective. It is therefore the mind perceives different things in quite different ways, without intermixing several similar and dissimilar objects. It is the human perception that enables humans to make distinction between various objects, on the basis of their size, color, form, appearance and other characteristics. Depoe (2004) associates evedentialism with the Christian teachings, and seeks its roots in the Holy Bible. He cites the Book of John (15:26-27), where Holy Jesus Christ informs his disciples that the Holy Spirit will give testimony about Jesus along with the apostles’ own testimony. Thus, the Scripture also reiterates the imperative place evidence maintains in respect of exploring the attributes of God; Anselm and Descartes have pointed out towards the same reality. Being a rational thinker and a dedicated philosopher as well, Descartes defines and indicates various attributes necessary for seeking truth and wisdom existing all around the humans. It is the same wisdom that searches out the existence of deity in the realities of universe by making comprehensive analysis of anything presented before the humans through the legitimate examination regarding the validity of a matter under observation and discussion. Since Descartes always strives to explore truth only and defies all forms of falsehood and rejects void and invalidity in a statement, he applies his approach in a systematic and analytical manner. His Meditations appear to be seeking apposite evidence in order to judge the significance of a statement. It is the quality which distinguishes him from unskilled thinkers and other individuals of society. As a philosopher he constantly makes a mature judgment of things, his words are considered as authority over the subject. The knowledge and wisdom, attained by the common men, individuals, scholars, sages, philosophers and thinkers is the sound and valid testimony regarding the existence of God. Instead of seeking support from the already prevailing sets of beliefs, Descartes strictly emphasizes upon developing one’ own criteria of estimating the natural phenomena and social realities without establishing some belief being followed by others. Hence, he refutes the very idea of taking an assumption or belief without applying one’s mental capabilities and discovering the evidence for the same in order to endorse its validity. Descartes also admits in his meditations that Almighty God has not only created humans, but also He has blessed them with vigilance and foresight so that they could make distinction between right and wrong as well as just and unjust; and thus recognise, identify and submit to the existence of the Supreme Being, Who is regulating all the affairs of the universe. Being the Just and the true Creator, He did not let the humanity go astray in the wilderness of ignorance and the darkness of unawareness. Descartes vehemently refutes the very idea that it is human mind that contains the capacity of identifying the Lord of heavens and earth; rather, it is the favours of the Almighty that wide open the horizons of wisdom and vigilance so that people could admit and acknowledge the existence and powers of the All-Powerful God. Descartes, in his meditation III and V, has made a comprehensive conclusion out of his contemplation and observation regarding the existence of God. He is of the view that human faculties are limited ones, which neither have the abilities to seek truth, nor maintain the strength to look into the realities beyond the gifted capacities. Hence, every reality serves as a contradictory one before him. Such type of contradictions leads human minds to nullify each and every matter before them. (Ariew, 2009: 78) Hence, Descartes believes that he would have to agree that it is possible for an entity to think and not think, to exist and not exist at the same time. There is one and the only thing, according to him, that is free from the bar of contradiction, i.e. the existence of God. He cites the example of some things, which do not exist in real world; even then they exist in theories. For instance, triangle does not appear in real world; even then its rules are applied in construction, geometry and other disciplines and activities. So, if we are ready to submit and acknowledge few geometrical rules, why are we reluctant to prove the very existence of the Lord, Whose presence is evident in countless objects? Descartes does not admit that it is senses that develop concepts and images of various objects and articles. On the contrary, it is actually the presence of objects, which communicate and transfer the ideas about these things by corresponding to the human brain about the nature and scope of these things. The future philosophers and their theories also submit the same notions. Scottish thinker David Hume and German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche have also argued regarding the significance of proper evidence and observation for demonstrating the ideas regarding natural and social realities. Consequently, he refutes the very idea that religion is synonymous with the adaptation of some presumptions and propositions without analysing their validity through intellectual capabilities and sound examinations. Nietzsche strongly believes that the concept of God is the product of society; it is therefore, the quantity, characteristics and nature of God varies from culture to culture and from one set of religious beliefs to the other. The strongest and most evil spirits, Nietzsche submits, have so far advanced humanity the most: they have always rekindled the drowsing passions--- all ordered society puts the passion to sleep: they have always reawakened the sense of comparison, of contradiction, of joy in the new, the daring, and the untried: (1882: 4) Voltaire also believes in the exploration of the true concept of God. He disclaimed the traditional idea of God, church and the king, and in a ironical way conveys the message that the truth, validity and legitimacy of these concept require comprehensive intellectual analyses to guide the humanity to move towards right direction. His Cartesian dualism and other doctrines also allude to the proofs regarding the certain existence of deity to regulate the affairs of the universe at large. The Cartesian dualism reflects his famous theory of rationalism, which aims to state that doubt should be eliminated with the help of clear and sound proofs while describing the realities of universal phenomena. Consequently, reflecting or existing body serves as an effective form of proof and seems unanswerable. Since no one can suspect the existence of his own self, yet existing or being alive is an imperative evidence of subsistence and survival. DePoe (2004) observes close proximity of the Descartes’ notion in metaphysical sciences, where he divides soul and mind into the categories of material and immaterial, which gives birth the idea of substance dualism. “For my purposes”, he submits, “dualism is the theory that there are two separate classes of properties: material and immaterial. If these distinct properties are understood to have substantial, enduring existence, then the theory can be called substance dualism.” (2004: 2) Depoe supports the concept of property dualism, where material property exits to carry and preserve the immaterial property. For instance, thoughts, opinions and imaginations are immaterial properties, which require a material thing, i.e. brain for the preservation of the same. Similarly, dreams, images and concepts also look for various physical limbs for portraying them in physical form. Consequently, comparatively superior and sublime things have to depend upon the inferior and eccentric articles in order to display their identity at large. Depoe cites Kripke’s viewpoint, where he submits that ‘physical and mental properties cannot be identical’ altogether, because the functions and activities of both the two are absolutely divergent ones. The philosopher alludes to the supposed zombie world, which contains material and immaterial elements, attributed to the real world, presence of which reflects the existence of all the articles and characters that belong to real world. “Since conscious people exist in the actual world that is physically identical with the conceivable zombie world, there must be more properties than merely physical ones in the actual world.” (Depoe, 2004: 4) Hence, Depoe sees eye to eye with the Descartes’ dualism doctrine by explaining the concept in a more vivid and explicit manner. The doctrine has also been discussed by other contemporary writers and philosophers in their works. To conclude, Descartes seeks reality in the existence of God far more than in any other thing or object present in the natural environment. He is of the view that the image of the characteristics of the real things is superior to the secondary traits including color etc. For instance, size and form of a thing is of vital important than the color of these things. Since the traits and characteristics of deity are apparent in everything, these are sound evidences of the existence of the Lord. The proof presupposes nothing but (i) Descartes’ own existence as a thinking substance and (ii) the existence (as modifications of the Descartes’ mind) of the ideas the Descartes thinks. On the basis of these two certainties, together with the certainty of such eternal truths as that everything that exists must have a cause of its existence, Descartes reasoned that the existence in us of the idea of God is impossible through any other cause than God. It is therefore, he seriously condemns blind imitation of false notions stating that mere imitation of some beliefs without analyzing their truthfulness and validity is sure to pave the way towards distract the people from the right path of righteousness and wisdom. He opines that since an intellectual applies his mind and keen observation to seek truthfulness, knowledge, wisdom and vigilance, he can provide proper guidance to the humanity to follow the right path rather mere imitating blindly certain faith and cult without acknowledging the very fact about good and evil and right and wrong. Annotated Bibliography Ariew, Roger. Modern Philosophy Second Edition 2011 ISBN: 9780872209787: Ariew (2011) has elaborated the Descartes’ works in an eloquent and critical manner, which manifestly describes different points raised by the eminent philosopher. The author has also provided critical appreciation of various aspects of his theoretical framework, which invite the readers to examine his valuable contributions in the field of rationalistic philosophy. The author has narrated how Descartes stresses upon refuting the validity of the theories, which could not be proven through intellect and observation as well. Since the work maintains proximity with the theory, I have applied the work as a major source for the present study. DePoe, John M. (2002) Western Michigan University. The author has critically examines Ontological argument by providing different arguments in favor of as well as against Evedentialism. He declares blind belief in the existence of deity as noetic defect. He declares it tragic that only philosophers and saints could have sound reasoning of belief in God, as people imitate the same notion on the basis of their strong belief without taking evidence into account altogether. He has refuted the idea of monism by declaring it strictly based on false assumptions. Oppenheimer & Zalta (1991). “Reflections on the Logic of the Ontological Argument.” The authors have analyzed the structure of Anselm’s argument for the existence of God. The authors have also demonstrated the very fact that the valid argument for God’s existence has been discussed in Proslogion II. Hence, the authors have focused their concentration on the ancient concept of ontology by explaining the Christian perspective about the same. Oppenheimer, Paul E. & Zalta, Edward N. “On the Logic of the Ontological Argument” Published in Philosophical Perspectives 5: The Philosophy of Religion, James Tomberlin (ed.), Atascadero: Ridgeview, 1991: 509–529 http://mally.stanford.edu/ontological.pdf Hawthorne, John has investigated important structural features of Descartes’ metaphysics, relates to mind. The author has applied rational reconstruction, in order to present the Cartesian system in a way that will be of maximal interest to contemporary metaphysicians. He also examines how the theses play themselves out in Descartes’ discussion of mind i.e. body dualism. Hawthorne, John (2002) Cartesian Dualism Quoted in http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/1156/Cartesian.pdf Depoe, John M. (2004) A Defense of Dualism Quoted in http://johndepoe.com/Evidentialism_RE_Holy_Spirit.pdf Nietzsche, Frederick Wilhelm. (1882) The Gay Science Voltaire (1759/2004) Candide Kessinger Publishing Read More