Senior Philosophy Seminar: Plato, Sextus Empiricus, Descartes, Locke, Hume - Assignment Example

?Senior Philosophy Seminar Study Guide Readings 24-28 Plato, Sextus Empericus, Descartes, Locke, Hume Plato Explain the twice bisected line, and each of the four divisions. If a line is bisected twice into unequal parts and then divided again in the same proportion, assume the two primary lines are answers. The two primary lines would be AC and CE. The four lines are AB, AC, CD, and CE for discussion purposes. AC is the visible world, while CE is the intelligible world. AB is shadows and reflections, or illusions. BC is physical things, or beliefs. CD is mathematical reasoning, whereas CE is philosophical reasoning. Plato believed that the knowledge represented by these lines are ordered highest to lowest as follows CE, CD, AC, and AB. 2 Explain the cave that Plato describes, with the prisoners, the platform from which the shadows are cast and the exit to the real world. The cave that Plato describes is a group of people chained to the wall of a cave for all of their lives. These people face a blank wall with a fire continuously roaring behind them. All that the chained people can see are shadows of the other people between them and the fire. For the prisoners the shadows are reality. However if a prisoner was freed, they could see that the shadows were not reality. Philosophers are like freed prisoners. Philosophers are like freed prisoners, they can detect reality from shadows. Sextus Empericus 3 What is the goal of Skepticism? The goal of the skepticism is to research truth about reality be comparing different truths in order to have peace of mind through the lack of judgment. A skeptic never passes judgment, but always searches truth in reality by comparing different truths. Descartes 4 Through what chain of reasoning does Descartes attempt to doubt his own body and all elements of it? Descartes uses the wax argument to doubt his own body and all elements of it. The wax argument is where Descartes takes a ball of wax. He looks at it, touches it, smells it, and uses his five senses to define the ball of wax. However when he puts the ball of wax next to a flame it loses it shape, it smells different, it sounds different, it feels different, and basically the wax changes. The human body can change the way it smells, tastes, sounds, feels, and looks. This is the reasoning Descartes uses to doubt his body. He concludes the only reason he exists is because he reasons. Locke 5 According to Locke, if our mind is a blank sheet of paper, how does it come to be filled? Where do complex ideas come from, according to Locke? John Locke believed that sensations and reflections are the two sources of all our ideas. As a baby develops in the womb, the sensations fill the mind. After birth the sensations and growing reflections of thought fill the mind. Complex ideas come from education. The education of a man really makes a man according to Locke. Good education makes for a good person; likewise bad education makes a bad person. Hume 6 If all of our knowledge of matters of fact depends on cause and effect, what is the source of our ideas of cause and effect, according to Hume? How does Hume argue for this? According to Hume, people reason inductively by correlating repetitively joined events. The thought of cause and effect result in knowledge. Hume historians believe Hume taught three types of causation exist; the logical positivist; the skeptical realist; and the quasi-realist. The logical positivist which argues that A leads to B or A most likely leads to B. The skeptical realist argues that if A leads to B an underlying cause is the reason. The quasi-realist believes that cause and effect can be anticipated by past behavior. 7 Why does Hume think we go in a circle when we try to demonstrate why we believe in cause and effect? Cause and effect is based on experience. Since experience can be different for diverse situations cause and effect might not always work for everyone. For example, a person in Moscow might say precipitation from the sky will cause snow packed roofs in December, but a person in the rainforest would say precipitation in December means rain. Cause and effect varies depending on the situation and various factors. Kant 8 What does Kant mean by calling a judgment analytic? Synthetic? Give an example of each kind? Based on what Kant says, are a posteriori judgments (judgments from experience) usually analytic or synthetic? Are a priori judgments usually analytic or synthetic? An analytic proposition is a “proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept.” Analytic judgments are a posteriori. A synthetic proposition is “a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept.” Synthetic judgments are a priori. An example of analytic is: “All bachelors are unmarried.” “All triangles have three sides.” An example of synthetic is: "All bachelors are unhappy." "All creatures with hearts have kidneys." 9 In various places in the essay, how does Kant dispute with Hume over the nature of our knowledge of cause and effect? “That metaphysics until now has remained in such a wavering state of uncertainty and contradictions is to be ascribed solely to the fact that this problem, and perhaps even the distinction between analytic and synthetic judgements, was not thought of earlier. Metaphysics stands or falls with the solution of this problem, or on a satisfactory proof that the possibility it requires to be explained does not in fact obtain.” “I understand very well how a consequent may be posited through a ground in accordance with the rule of identity, because it is found to be contained in [the ground] by the analysis of concepts. … [A]nd I can clearly comprehend this connection of the ground with the consequent, because the consequent is actually identical with part of the concept of the ground …. However, how something may flow from another, but not in accordance with the rule of identity, is something that I would very much like to have made clear to me. I call the first kind of ground a logical ground, because its relation to the consequent can be logically comprehended in accordance with the rule of identity, but I call the second kind of ground a real ground, because this relation indeed belongs to my true concepts, but the manner of this [relation] can in no way be estimated. With respect to such a real ground and its relation to the consequent, I pose my question in this simple form: how can I understand the circumstance that, because something is, something else is to be? A logical consequent is only posited because it is identical with the ground.” James 10 In the essay, what connections does James make between usefulness and truth? James asserted that true beliefs as those that prove useful to the believer. If the truth is not useful to those; than they are not considered as truths. Russell 11 Explain some of Russell’s ways of illustrating the gap between reality and our knowledge, even of something as common and obvious as a table. Reality is not always equated with individual knowledge. An example of the table is a blind person and a seeing person have different knowledge of a table. A person that can see the table might not experience the same knowledge as a blind person. This does not impact the reality that a table is an oak table of certain dimensions. Rorty 12 Rorty sees the philosophies of Wittgenstein, Heidegger and Dewey as role models for us now. What did these men try (in very different ways) and where did they eventually arrive in their investigations? These men tried to find the knowing or known. They all came to the conclusion that words are insufficient to label this concept. All of these men have come to conclusion with buzz words, but they all agree that the concepts are lacking. He saw in this tradition a way to avoid the problematic claims of realism and idealism, which he saw as both relying on a kind of epistemic foundationalism to get off the ground. 13 How does Rorty view the search for the “foundations of knowledge” or a universal “theory of representation” or all similar grand philosophical projects? What does he seem to want out of philosophy now? After eliminating foundationalism, Rorty suggests that one of the few parts left for a philosopher is to become an intellectual gadfly. The intellectual gadfly then tries to create a innovative break with previous theories and create new ones. Harrington 14 State briefly the first principle of science and the three supporting assumptions upon which science rests. Why are we justified in believing them, according to Harrington? The first principle is a basic, foundational proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. One assumption is causality. This is basically cause and effect. The second assumption is antecedence. This assumes that the cause must be prior to, or at least synchronized with, the effect. The third assumption is contiguity. This hypothesizes that cause and effect must be in spatial contact or associated by a sequence of transitional things in contact. This principle and assumptions make sense logically according to Harrington. 15 Give the two criteria that must be met to allow a conclusion reached inductively to be reasonable by scientists.  Does the satisfaction of these criteria mean than a conclusion is absolutely right?  Why or why not? The two criteria that must be met to allow a conclusion to be reached inductively is if the conclusion is likely or probable. The satisfaction of these criteria does not mean that the conclusion is absolutely right. For example, all the cats seen have fur thus all cats have fur. Cats not seen might not have fur, but that is unknown. Popper 16 What is the specific question that Popper is trying to answer? Popper wanted to rebut the inductive form of the scientific method and prove empirical falsification. He wanted to prove that scientific experimentation might be refuted in the future. 17 Explain in some detail what was so strikingly different about Einstein’s predictions and the predictions and interpretations of Freudian and Adlerian psychology? Einstein’s predictions were based on empirical methods or inductive reasoning. Freudian and Adlerian psychology used more explanatory power. Einstein’s predictions could one day be proven, whereas Freudian and Adlerian psychology would only be abstract. 18 Based on Kuhn’s description of the emergence of the oxygen theory of combustion and the “discovery” of oxygen, what is complicated about trying to distinguish between “fact” and “theory” or even “observation” and “reality”? Why is it difficult even to become aware of anomalies in an area of science or in any other area, such as cards? It is complicated to distinguish between fact and theory, or observation and reality due to the individual pursuing the knowledge. According to Kuhn, knowledge does not go on a linear plane but is subject to a change in the basic assumptions. It is difficult to become aware of anomalies because of the foundationless or baseless knowledge that an anomaly even exists. 19 Why is it that once there is true competition between paradigms, it is difficult to make a rational choice between them, or even for those on the two sides to have a rational conversation about them? Paradigms are "sufficiently unprecedented to attract an enduring group of adherents away from competing modes of scientific activity," and "sufficiently open-ended to leave all sorts of problems for the redefined group of practitioners to resolve." Mencius & Hsun-tzu 20 Why does Mencius reject the argument that human nature is indifferent to righteousness in the same way that water is indifferent to the direction it flows? “The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom.” 21 What are Hsun-tzu’s tests for what is natural or unnatural? By these tests, how does he show that righteousness is not natural? “Now it is the nature of man that when he is hungry he will desire satisfaction, when he is cold he will desire warmth, and when he is weary he will desire rest. This is his emotional nature. And yet a man, although he is hungry, will not dare to be the first to eat if he is in the presence of his elders, because he knows that he should yield to them, and although he is weary, he will not dare to demand rest because he knows that he should relieve others of the burden of labor. For a son to yield to his father or a younger brother to relieve his elder brother - acts such as these are all contrary to man's nature and run counter to his proper forms enjoined by ritual principles.” Plato (The alleged historical setting of this dialogue is that Socrates is heading to the trial that would ultimately end his life. On his way, he meets Euthyphro, who is coming to court as a prosecutor.) 22 Unlike many of the dialogues we have read, those of Plato are often playful, and the characters can show a bit of personality. That’s true in the Euthyphro. After reading the essay, what kind of person is Euthyrphro? What kind of person is Socrates? Can you imagine how they would act in other situations based on Plato’s sketches of them here? For instance, what would Euthyphro think of our chapel? What would Socrates think? Euthyrphro is a confident person. He is confident enough to listen to Socrates. He took his own father to court over a slave because of what he thought was right. However confident Euthyrphro, he is still a product of his society. He believes in the Greek gods. Socrates is skeptical. He does not believe in the Greek gods. Euthyphro would be more accepting of a chapel. Socrates would be skeptical. He would find the flaws and reason against any type of religion. 23 Justice usually means giving others what is properly due them. Why think piety is part of justice? Piety should be part of justice. Every citizen should have devoutness to true justice. The problem is the definition of justice. Not everyone believes that justice means giving others what is properly due to them. Euthyrphro’s father did not believe justice was being fair to his slave. True justice of giving others what is properly due them should have piety as part of it. Aristotle 24 Explain Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean and how it applies to virtues. Explain two or three virtues using this doctrine as a guide. The doctrine of the mean is a virtue in the middle of extremes. One virtue is honesty. If a person is honest when asked questions it is a virtue. If a person goes out of their way to be brutally honest it becomes a vice. Charitableness is a virtue if a person only gives what they can afford. If a person gives everything while starving their family it becomes a vice. The doctrine of mean is the middle ground between to extremes. Epicurus 25 What is the ideal or ‘blessed’ life according to Epicurus? What is the role of pleasure in such a life? How might we pursue blessedness? “It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing "neither to harm nor be harmed” and “it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.” Pleasure should only be pursued with in a wise manner. Too much pleasure can cause pain. Individuals need to be wise enough to know how not to over indulge. Augustine 26 Explain how Augustine argues that the best thing for us (our primary good) is the good of our souls. “We all want to live happily; in the whole human race there is no one who does not assent to this proposition, even before it is fully articulated. How is it, then, that I seek you, Lord? Since in seeking you, my God, I seek a happy life, let me seek you so that my soul may live, for my body draws life from my soul and my soul draws life from you.” 27 How does this conclusion fit with Augustine’s citations from scripture? This conclusion fits with Augustine’s citations from the scripture due to his belief that the search for God leads to happiness. Without God and the Scripture no happiness or good could exist for humans. Kant 28 Explain Kant’s concept of the “categorical imperative.” How is it different from the “hypothetical imperative?” Hypothetical imperatives compel actions in given circumstances, whereas categorical imperatives represent a complete, unconditional prerequisite that proclaims its authority in all environments, both compulsory and justified as an end in itself. Mill 29 How does Mill distinguish between pleasures and pain and decide which ones count more or less? Pleasure is the absence of pain and vice versa. Pleasures are more or less depending on “the which all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure.: 30 Based on the answer to the previous question, do some analysis of your own. What would be the effect of Mill’s standard for telling higher and lower pleasures? For instance, which segments of society (rich/poor, educated/uneducated) would we most look to for advice on moral matters? In a society where women were severely restricted in what they could experience, which gender would be most likely to guide us morally? Which age group? Could you make an argument for which races or countries would be the “wisest” morally, based on Mill’s point of view? Higher and lower pleasures would be dictated by rich and educated when looking to for advice on moral matters. In a society where women were severely restricted males are most likely to guide citizens. The adult or 30 to 40 groups would lead the citizens. The countries that are the wisest morally according to Mill’s would be the ones with countries that agree with each other the most. Saudi Arabia would be the most moral country based on legal statistics. All of the citizens agree on what is moral, or at least follow the laws. Nietzsche 31 What are Nietzsche’s criticisms of the “utilitarian Englishmen” such as Bentham and Mill? “They are an unassuming and fundamentally mediocre species of men, these utilitarian Englishmen, and, as already remarked, in so far as they are tedious, one cannot think highly enough of their utility.” 32 Explain Nietzsche’s attitude toward Christianity. How has Christianity affected morals in Europe? How are the teachings of Christianity related to morality? Nietzsche’s attitude toward Christianity was harsh. He did not believe in the absolute good and evil that Christianity promoted. He felt that Christianity had affected the morals in Europe as a slave morality that was a foundation for the nihilism that overtook Europe. Christianity teaches a slave morality, or a meek, submissive, and subordinate morality toward the Christian God. 33 What are the steps (the recipes) for the corruption of morals, as Nietzsche lays them out? Carol Gilligan 34 Trace out what Gilligan is presenting as traits of male morality and of female morality. Use the whole essay to give examples. Male morality has a “justice orientation”, and female morality has a “responsibility orientation”. One example is an individual steals food for their children. A male would want the individual put in jail or pay for the food, a woman, on the other hand, might pay for the food herself or overlook the theft due to the responsibility of the children being fed. James Rachels 35 Explain the two lessons we can learn from cultural relativism, according to Rachels. The first lesson is Cultural Relativism shows the danger of assuming that all human inclinations are based on some unconditional balanced standard. Many of human practices are atypical to a specific society. The second lesson is to have an open mind. Each individual has feelings about what is acceptable and what is not. It is not unusual to feel challenged when around different cultures. That does not make one culture right or wrong. It is good to have an open mind about other cultures. Plato 36. What is the social contract that bounds Socrates to the Athenian government? The social contract the bound Socrates to the Athenian government is the Athenian laws. Socrates reasoned that he knew the law of Athens, but he remained after reaching maturity. Thus he accepted the laws of Athens despite his tendency to question the laws. He had a chance to leave, but Socrates lived under Athenian law. That is the social contract between Socrates and the Athenian government. Aristotle 37. Aristotle also claims that human beings are by nature political animals. What does this mean, and what argument or evidence does Aristotle offer in defense of this claim? Aristotle considered politics as being like an organism, more like a collection of parts. None of the parts can be without the others. Every part exists to help the other parts. Since human beings need each other and politics are one way to express their need for each other. Cities are like one whole with a lot of parts. 38. Is a good ruler that same as a good citizen? Should rulers lead by example and follow all the laws of the state? A good ruler is the same as a good citizen. The only difference is a good ruler must have practical wisdom. Rulers should lead by example and follow laws of the state in order to show citizens how to behave. Aquinas 39. What does Aquinas mean when he states “in temporal law there is nothing just and lawful, but what man has drawn from eternal law?” Aquinas means that Eternal law is God’s law as seen by God. Eternal laws are only understood by God. It is unchanging. Since humans do not know the mind of God temporal laws must be drawn from what is known of Eternal laws. The Ten Commandants were considered by Aquinas to be Eternal laws. 40. If, according to Aquinas, humans strive for virtue via laws and this virtue is based on reason, how then it is that there is not a universal law that all men can agree on and create for the advancement of society? Different individuals view virtue differently and different individuals reason the same. An example would be the virtues via laws in the West are different that virtues via laws in the East or even the Middle East. Hobbes 41. If man is inherently violent, or a warrior, how is it that “the first and fundamental law of nature is, that peace is to be sought after where it may be found?” In the law of nature humans want to gain, have safety, and have a reputation. “The first and fundamental law of nature is, that peace is to be sought after where it may be found” is followed by “and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war.” In order to have gain, safety, and reputation it is necessary to seek peace. In a war torn atmosphere gain and reputation might be achieved, but safety will never be achieved. That is why humans seek peace at all costs. Wollstonecraft 42. What would it take to make women useful members of society? Wollstonecraft believed that education would make women useful members of society. Whether working out, writing, or even being homemakers education would make women useful members of society. Education would create useful members of society. Marx 43. Explain the ways the bourgeoisie has transformed the world to suit itself? The bourgeoisie transformed the world by acquiring more technology. By using technology to cut man power the bourgeoisie grew richer, whereas the proletariat would become poorer. The bourgeoisie used labor to achieve their goals, but would discard it to become richer. 44. If the bourgeoisie “has played a most revolutionary part” then what will keep the proletariat, after overthrowing them, from becoming them? The proletariat loves their work. They are workers, not merchants or leaders. If everyone loved their work and was a proletariat, no class would exist. Proletariats would not become bourgeoisie because no class would exist in a true Marxist society. Mill 45. What is the relationship between the individual and the state? According to Mill the relationship between the individual and the state should be minimal. Individuals should be free to act anyway they want as long as no harm comes to them or others. A government or state should protect the no harm. Laws concerning no harm to others should be enacted, other than that the state should be separate from the individual. Rawls 46. What are the principles of justice? The first principle is the liberty principle states that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. The second principle is the difference principle which states social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least advantaged members of society and offices and positions must be open to every individual under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. 47. How does Rawls answer the problem of “treating equals equally and unequals unequally?” The difference principle states that social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least advantaged members of society and offices and positions must be open to every individual under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. An example is a paraplegic. A person in a wheelchair needs more support with medical, physical, and mental difficulties than a healthy person. However, a paraplegic should also have the right to run for office and positions in order to be fair. King 48. What are the 4 steps for action? The four steps for action are gathering of the facts to decide whether injustice exists, arbitration; self-purification; and direct action. Read More