Cross-Cultural Communication: the Nonverbal Components of the Communication - Research Paper Example

Introduction Preamble Cross-cultural communication or ‘intercultural communication’ pertains to communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds (Hana 1997: xii). This type of communication could cause some difficulties, such as due to unfamiliarity. At the same time, it also provides great opportunities for people to share their perspectives, perceptions, ideas and experiences with one another. Communicating across cultures is becoming increasingly commonplace due to the existence of multi-cultural societies, especially in large cities, and due to all other consequences of globalisation. Effective cross-cultural communication can be particularly critical in the business environment (Bannon & Mattock, 2003; Fowler & Manktelow, 2010) and in the world of politics (Blanford, 2009) where matters of national and strategic importance are communicated. Overview In this assignment, I attempt to explain cross-cultural communication, describe a model that helps to understand cultural traits and differences, relate my personal experiences of cross-cultural communication, and based on this, I discuss the limitations of the model before making recommendations for effective cross-cultural communication. Case presentation This paper presents a set of recommended best practice guidelines aimed at improving cross-cultural communication. The guidelines offered emerge from an analysis of an instance of cross-cultural communication that took place between myself and other members of staff following a lecture I delivered. The analysis is based on the application of the NYNJ-PHTC model of ‘Ten strategies for effective cross-cultural communication’ that attempts to maximise levels of cultural awareness between communicants as the basis of improving communication effectiveness. This analysis highlights inadequacies in the model, particularly in terms of interpersonal communications concepts that need to be more fully addressed to ensure communication effectiveness is not lost because of the unique barriers that different cultures as language and meaning systems create. Such interpersonal communications concepts as psychological noise, difficult people, symmetrical and complementary relationships, relationships dialectic theory and ambiguity are important here because they affect the quality of the interaction. However, flexibility was particularly important in my experience. Theories Theories of cross-cultural communication Various theorists wrote extensively on the topic of cross-cultural communication. Among the most prominent were the British Richard Lewis, the American Edward Hall, and the two Dutchmen Geert Hofstede and Fons Trompenaars. For this paper, I shall focus on Hofstede’s model. Hofstede’s ideas Hofstede identified five dimensions of culture. They are listed below. 1. Individualism - Collectivism 2. Power distance 3. Uncertainty avoidance 4. Masculinity – Femininity 5. Long-term – Short-term orientation Several studies have confirmed the existence of these cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 2001). These characteristics are actually useful in describing different cultures to better understand and compare them, and explain differences in behaviour and communication. This information can then be applied for conducting effective cross-cultural communication. Of these five dimensions, I shall describe all except for the fourth. Individualistic cultures are those in which people develop unique identities. They “express private opinions, and attach importance to self-actualisation” (Mooij, 2009). On the other hand, in collectivist cultures “identities are based on the social system to which people belong. People are fundamentally interdependent and harmony is a key virtue” (Mooij, 2009). In other words, they value the group above the individual and group commitment above personal interests (Ford, 2001). Generally, people in most Western counties are individualistic whereas Asians, Africans and Latin Americans are mostly collectivist. Power distance refers to the extent to which people accept the unequal distribution of power. It is a point of difference between less powerful and more powerful members of society. Again, most people in developing countries have a high power distance but this includes some nations in Southern and Eastern Europe. Countries with low power distance are the U.S. and some Northern European countries including the U.K. Uncertainty avoidance refers to “the extent to which people feel threatened by, and try to avoid, situations that give rise to uncertainty and ambiguity” (Mooij, 2009). In countries such as the U.K uncertainty avoidance is usually weak whereas in many countries it is high. There is a similar roughly East-West divide in terms of people’s long and short-term orientation. Many people in Western countries prefer short-term gains whereas many Easterners tend to plan for the longer term. Other observations In addition, Ford (2001) mentions a few more noteworthy points on different communication styles. For example, while some people are more expressive, others are more restrained. People who are more socialised are able to reveal strong emotions openly and are normally comfortable with eye contact, whereas the restrained group usually hide their emotions and avoid eye contact. Another difference is in directness. Whereas some people prefer to ‘cut to the chase’, others prefer to ‘beat around the bush’. The former are direct and the latter are indirect. All these differences are apparent when people from different cultures communicate and relate with each other as I shall relate from my own personal experiences. Model Description of a cross-cultural model The model selected (see Figure 1) is the one promoted by the New York and New Jersey Public Health Training Center (NYNJ-PHTC, 2004). It is used in their web-based ‘Practicing Cross-Cultural Communication’ course. Figure 1: Ten strategies for effective cross-cultural communication This model has the following components that are the strategies for effective cross-cultural communication: 1. Ask questions to develop cultural knowledge 2. Distinguish cultural perspectives 3. Build self-awareness 4. Recognise the complexity of cross-cultural communication 5. Avoid stereotyping 6. Respect cultural differences 7. Listen actively, i.e. employ active listening skills 8. Be honest, i.e. avoid culturally insensitive language and behaviours 9. Be flexible in choosing communication strategies 10. Think twice Heath workers come into contact with a wide variety of people so it is necessary that they acquire the necessary skills for dealing with cross-cultural communication situations. Although this model is targeted for health workers, it can be used in numerous other cross-cultural communication contexts as well. Personal experiences Specific instance of a personal experience As detailed in the first assignment, interpersonal communication refers to the process of transmitting messages that are mutually intelligible. I stressed on familiarity as being essential, and that a ‘shared meaning’ is developed when the people with different backgrounds in terms of race and life style develop a liking for one another, as pointed out by West & Turner (2009: 406). However, the nature of the communication or degree of interaction is also different depending on the relationship with the other person. It also depends on the surrounding environment or context in which the communication takes place. My experience in the educational institute, in which I went to the staff room after delivering my first lecture and was then asked several questions about my personal life and qualifications, was an unnerving moment for me. It was more so not only because of the unfamiliarity but also because of the multi-cultural atmosphere. However, I gradually settled in very well once I did become familiar with their behaviour, which as it turned out was cooperative and friendly. This was a demonstration of the uncertainty reduction theory. Other similar personal experiences Educational institutions are good places for cross-cultural communication because there are all sorts of people who work and learn there. Symbolic interaction theory explains the interaction that takes place between numerous individuals in which we gain from others as well through observing positive aspects of their behaviour. This was the case while I was studying at university because many other students in my classes belonged to different cultures. I learned both positive aspects, which I derived knowledge from and in some cases emulated and also negative aspects, which I ignored. For example, I observed that among Western students, both friends and others, there was greater openness in communication and freethinking on various issues. I found this to be in contrast to what I had been used to where conformity was the norm and certain topics were not discussed even with close friends. These were clear instances of deeper cultural differences. From these experiences, I gained the confidence to think more openly, to be more assertive in communicating with Western friends, and to appreciate different perspectives. I would say that these days at secondary school to some extent but more so while at university really were the days of learning a lot about cross-cultural communication. The reason why I am fortunate to be experiencing cross-cultural communication opportunities, is because I live in a multi-cultural society. In my city there are people with a diversity of backgrounds so cross-cultural communication can easily be practiced and perfected. For example, there are shops belonging to owners from different cultures and there is interaction with some of them on almost a daily basis. These interactions do not pose any problems because they are simple affairs that do not require having to get to know the other person or their thoughts and feelings in depth. Most of the cross-cultural communication from which I have gained in knowledge and experience however has taken place in formal contexts during my university studies and my professional career. During my limited workplace experience, there was also a diversity of cultures, but the experience was not to the same extent as at university. Nonetheless, my managerial experience while working in the large organisation did have a cultural dimension to it as well besides the interpersonal one. It was not only the lack of interpretational communication skills but also cultural differences that led to the misunderstanding in which the assistance manager failed to comply with my non-verbal expressions, and the lost marketing opportunity occurred. During the meeting on whether or not to launch the new product earlier than expected, the product manager failed to understand my indirect expression of dismay and misinterpreted my words intended to uphold social harmony. In other words, outwardly I only agreed because I wanted to avoid conflict and be seen as conforming to the others, yet inside me I wanted to make it clear that the idea was not good. This is an illustration of individualism versus collectivism. I conformed because I was more of a collectivist at the time. If I had been open in directly expressing my thoughts as the other managers were, they might have understood my position and this would have saved the company from losing out to its competitor. When speaking to a native speaker of English whoever they may be, it was only in the beginning that I had to grapple with the difficulty of expressing myself. Although I am able to clearly process thoughts in my mind, the task of putting those thoughts into words was not always easy. This was most evident when the subject matter was more technical or otherwise requiring advanced level vocabulary. Moreover, as I said in my first assignment, it is easier to adopt another language but entirely difficult to adopt the culture as well. Again, over time this difficulty eroded in line with the knowledge and experience I have gained of the English language. Pronunciation was not a big problem as this improved quickly with practice. Discussion Discussion of concepts Hofstede’s concept of cultural dimensions is very useful for describing and comparing different cultures, but it is not always so useful as a tool for cross-cultural communication. The reason I say this is that it promotes the idea that people of another culture can be stereotyped. In many cases, people from certain parts of the world do fit the expected description according to Hofstede’s model, but it would be wrong to assume that all the people from that culture are the same. The Japanese for example, tend to complain that they don’t’ understand the Americans because unlike themselves, Americans are neither racially nor culturally homogenous (LeBaron, 2003). Perhaps, Hofstede’s model was more accurate when there was less interaction between different cultures, i.e. before the present age of globalisation. I believe that with globalisation and the existence of multi-cultural societies, the distinctions Hofstede makes have become more blurred. Thus, we find that now there is a move on from simply using Hofstede’s research to describe cultural differences, towards “attending to levels of analysis issues, incorporating social and organisational context factors into cross-cultural research, taking indigenous perspectives seriously, and moving beyond intracultural comparisons to understand the dynamics of cross-cultural interfaces” (Gelfand et al., 2007). As for expressiveness and directness, these qualities may be characteristic of "certain cultures as well, but they are also to be found within cultures, so it is more likely that they are personality rather than cultural traits. Nonetheless, I found Hofstede’s model accurate in explaining for example, my perception of Westerners at the university. I can now understand why some students were more individualistic and freethinking. The model is helpful in anticipating the type of traits the person with the other culture might have but we really need to identify the ingredients essential for effectively conducting cross-cultural communication no matter what other culture the other person may belong to. Discussion of model The model under study has plenty of components for dealing with cross-cultural communication. If someone was to adopt all these strategies, their abilities for cross-cultural communication would definitely improve. In light of my one specific experience described above, I shall briefly discuss (in t) each of the components, i.e. the extent to which each of them were utilised in that particular experience or not. Strategy Details Ask questions I did not need to ask any questions; rather I was the one being questioned mostly. Distinguish perspectives I have a good awareness of differences in cultural perspectives. Build self-awareness I am very culturally aware. Being in the multi-cultural staff room atmosphere made me think even more about my own cultural identity. Recognise the complexity I was aware of the complexity because the experience was unnerving for me at the time. Avoid stereotyping I never held any stereotypes, nor did any stereotypes develop after the experience. Respect differences Although I felt a bit tense at first, the others held me in respect and this helped me to feel more comfortable gradually. I also respected the other cultures that I came across. Listen actively I was very active in listening carefully, as when listening to their comments about the lecture. Be honest I am an honest person. None of us engaged in anything that would be considered as insensitive language and behaviour. Be flexible I was adaptable in dealing with the situation. For example, I chose the strategy of listening carefully at the beginning while others were making comments about the lecture and asking me personal questions. Then, as I felt more comfortable, became more familiar and forged some bonding, I was also more forthright in asking about others. Think twice There were moments when I had to think twice, as when the other staff members asked about my qualifications. At first I thought this was getting too personal but then I did not hesitate to respond. Table 1: Discussion of the model for each strategy These strategies could also apply to the other experiences described. It is not necessary that all of them apply or to the same degree in every situation, nonetheless they are all more or less applicable all the time. Further evaluation of the model During cross-cultural communication, the communication does not take place entirely verbally. The nonverbal signals also play a significant role. Thus, culture is often referred to as ‘the silent language of communication’ because it is not directly expressed in words. People therefore need to be extra careful in communicating with other people belonging to different cultures because there are likely to be differences in the way things are interpreted and perceived. Misunderstandings can arise and in worst cases, offence can be taken even if the cause was inadvertent or unintentional. The aspects of culture that are most apparent are gestures, facial expressions and body language and the meanings attached to them, family values, concepts of time and space, emotional responses, etc. All these need to be understood to ensure that the communication is conducted effectively and without any misunderstanding or offense. Misunderstandings arise due to poor communication (Lemay & Schwamberger, 2007: 7) and interpretation skills such as when one party is inattentive or due to a cultural difference, a gesture has a different meaning. It is also very easy to over-generalise about other people’s cultural traits, so this means having pre-conceived notions of others’ cultures is not sufficient because people are different even within a single culture. The understanding must be thorough enough to avoid the potential complications. However, the main focus will be on the verbal aspects of cross-cultural communication. The differences in verbal communication are also of course significant aside from the nonverbal communication. The main problem is precisely the different languages. That is, the different native languages, language accents, differences in vocabulary and pronunciation, and so on. For example, a non-native speaker of English may find it difficult to express him or herself when speaking to a native English speaker. Wang (2003) studied academic sojourners, i.e. “those who teach and learn in cultures other than their own”. The cultural issues he found to be common were the following: 1. Dealing with culture shock 2. Overcoming language barriers 3. Establishing social networks 4. Making sense of the unfamiliar 5. Becoming competent and effective In my experience, I found all these features to be present, at least when I first came into contact with an English speaking culture. The culture shock was only initially and to a mild degree. Overcoming the language barriers, establishing social networks and making sense of the unfamiliar were dealt with over time as the experience developed, and now I am focusing on becoming competent and effective. Recommendations Recommendations based on the evaluation of the model The model is effective because, as mentioned above, there are plenty of components, which together form a comprehensive strategy. However, it is not easy to remember all the components so there needs to be some way of improving recall, for example by categorizing them. An attempt is made further below to improve upon this model. Further recommendations for effective cross-cultural communication Based on my own personal experience, I think self-confidence is the biggest factor that can help in improving cross-cultural communication. A self-confident speaker is one who has no hesitation in speaking and is able to convey the message accurately and efficiently. In the cross-cultural context this could mean in a way that the other party clearly understands the meaning according to his or her own cultural background. If he or she is successful then the other person would easily understand the speaker. As for the non-verbal aspects, a good speaker would be aware of any potential complications and would do his or her best to minimise or prevent any misunderstandings they may cause. Other useful qualities to have to make cross-cultural communication easy are understanding and patience. Also, knowledge is an important key to making the communication effective because it leads to a conscious effort to overcome any potential problems (CRC, 1998). In my own model discussed further below, the knowledge and awareness category has the greatest number of components because it is necessary to have the right mindset for communication. In cross-cultural communication, there are differences and potentially complications that must be known and understood before anything can be done about them. Cues can also be taken from the marketing world. International companies have to adapt their marketing strategies according to the target culture and this is reflected in their advertising for particular countries and regions, which become localised. This is necessary because it is a myth to believe that universal values can be used for global advertising (Mooii, 2003). To be successful, such companies must know their markets and customers. The way they normally cope is to have members of the target culture in their marketing teams, as they can better understand the complexities. The alternative would be to ascertain this from conducting some research beforehand. The localisation policies necessarily take into account the differences in language, age groups, gender, relationships, values, norms, etc. Within multinational corporations themselves, global teams are typically comprised of individuals from various cultural backgrounds who all need to communicate effectively with one another. For successful negotiation for example, it is necessary to have a power of influence but this rests on the ability to understand the other person first. For personal communication, the lessons that can be learnt from the above are the need to take an adaptive approach, implement localisation strategies for engaging in environments where the other culture is dominant, and to try and gather relevant information about an unfamiliar culture beforehand if possible. As Dr Mooij (2009) states: “Strategies for communication and influence need to be rooted in a detailed, context-specific understanding of both the behavioural patterns and the underlying cultural values of those with whom we want to engage. Recognition of this is a vital first step for professionals … who want to exert influence upon and engage with others across the globe.” The behaviour though is usually difficult to predict in advance without any prior knowledge of the person (Baxter & Braithwaite, 2008: 423). Ford (2001) gives the recommendations listed below for effective cross-cultural communication. Although these are given for teams operating in cross-cultural contexts, they can equally apply to individuals. 1. Know yourself and your own culture 2. Learn other’s expectations 3. Check your assumptions 4. When in Rome … ask questions 5. Listen 6. Consider the platinum rule (treat others as they would like to be treated) 7. All conflict is multi-cultural I find that no.1 is the right first step because by knowing about yourself and your own culture makes you certain of your own identity. This is also necessary before you can compare yourself with others. Learning other’s expectations and treating them the way they would like to be treated shows consideration for the other culture and this attitude is more likely to elicit favourable responses. Checking assumptions also ensures that thought has been given to making the communication effective. I like the fourth suggestion because instead of suggesting to do like the Romans, he suggests asking questions. I think this is good practice that displays the speaker’s confidence. Moreover, it avoids misunderstandings because what can be better than hiding the fact that you are not sure of something than to go ahead and ask for clarification? Listening is also an important part of the communication process. Lemay & Schwamberger (2007: 6) claim that not listening enough is the main reason for lack of communication in business. Many people speak more than they listen but it is the listeners that take in more information and derive benefit from the communication. Again, better listening can also prevent misunderstandings from occurring. The last suggestion makes all cross-cultural communication to be potentially conflicting. This could be true if mistakes in communicating are made, but it should not be the case if care is taken. The intended meaning is that all communication irrespective of whether it is cross-cultural or between people of the same culture should be regarded as cross-cultural because of potential ‘conflicts’. This would ensure that people take greater care when they are communicating with others and give greater attention to being effective. Ola Noor’s model for cross-cultural communication Based on my study of the different existing models, and their strengths and weaknesses in light of my own cross-cultural communication experiences, and also my understanding of the same, I present an alternative comprehensive model. This basically divides the qualities identified in other models into four categories according to their function, albeit with some modifications. Physical (Psycho-motor) Emotional (Affective) Mental (Cognitive) Spiritual Practical skills Feelings Awareness and knowledge Necessary virtues Being forthright in questioning Adaptability Listening attentively Empathy Self Cultural differences Potential problems Coping strategies Respect Tolerance Table 2: Ola Noor's model for cross-cultural communication This model does not include ‘avoid stereotyping’ present in the model analysed. Although this is important, it is an outcome of having greater awareness and knowledge of the target culture and cultural differences. People who have greater familiarity with the other culture will know the inappropriateness and futility of stereotyping and the fact that even within apparently homogenous groups, there are variations just as there are differences in people’s personalities and psychologies. Therefore, this was not included in my model. As for additions to the analysed model, I believe tolerance is necessary because it is not enough to have just respect for the other culture. Cross-cultural communication is not always perfect. Even if one or both parties are trained in cross-cultural communication, misunderstandings can still arise. The probability is higher if either one or both has no knowledge of cross –cultural differences. I such situations, tolerance is necessary to prevent the situation getting out of control. I present below a more attractive version of my model for greater visual clarity. This could alternatively be presented as steps because there are a different number of components in each category between 1 and 4 although this would change the order of the categories. Figure 2: Ola Noor's model for cross-cultural communication Conclusions Cross-cultural communication is potentially conflicting if it is not handled with care. Misunderstandings often arise due to poor communication, in this case in understanding each other’s culture and in interpreting the nonverbal components of the communication. Hofstede’s model identifies characteristics of cultures and this knowledge can be useful in describing and comparing different cultures or explaining differences. However, globalization has blurred these distinctions. My own experience showed the importance of having confidence in particular. In addition, a number of other essential ingredients for effective cross-cultural communication were also identified and I presented my own model for the same. References Textual references Bannon, Gerard & Mattock, John. (2003). Cross-cultural communication: the essential guide to international business. Kogan Page Publishers. Baxter, Leslie A. & Braithwaite, Dawn O. (2008). Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: multiple perspectives. Los Angeles, Sage Publications. Blanford, Roxanne. (2009). Cross cultural communication: understanding human communication in the context of culture. Retrieved 28 April 2010 from http://international-cultural-affairs.suite101.com/article.cfm/cross_cultural_communication. CRC. (1998). Cross-cultural communication strategies. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado. Retrieved 29 April 2010 from http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/treatment/xcolcomm.htm. Ford, John. (2001). Cross cultural conflict resolution in teams. Retrieved 29 April 2010 from http://www.mediate.com/articles/ford5.cfm. Fowler, Kellie & Manktelow, James. (2010). Effective cross culture communication. Mind Tools. Retrieved 29 April 2010 from http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/Cross-Cultural-communication.htm. Gelfand, Michele J.; Erez, Miriam & Aycan, Zeynep. (2007). Cross-Cultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58: 479-514. Hana S. Noor Al-Deen. (1997). Cross cultural communication and aging in the United States. Routledge. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications. LeBaron, Michelle. (2003). Culture-Based negotiation styles. Beyond Intractability. Retrieved 29 April 2010 from http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/culture_negotiation/. Lemay, Eunice & Schwamberger, Jane. (2007). Listen up! How to communicate effectively at work. Papilio Publishing. Mooij, De. (2003). Convergence and divergence in consumer behavior: Implications for global advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 22(2): 184. Mooij, Dr Mariede De. (2009). Cross-cultural communication in a globalised world. Retrieved Apr. 29, 2010 from: http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/publications/publications/pd-publication/cross-cultural. NYNJ-PHTC. (2004). Practicing cross-cultural communication. Retrieved June 22, 2010 from http://www.nynj-phtc.org/pccc.cfm. Wang, Jianglong. (2003). Research on academic sojourners’ communication strategies: a critical review. A paper prepared for Hawaii International Conference on Social Sciences, June 12-15, 2003. Retrieved 29 April 2010 from http://www.hicsocial.org/ss_program.pdf. West, Richard & Turner, Lynn H. 2(009). Understanding interpersonal communication: making choices in changing times. Boston, Thomson Wadsworth. Source of images Background of front cover: https://sarmstrong.biz/Diversity_Topics.html Fig. 1: http://www.nynj-phtc.org/pccc.cfm Read More