Child Abuse and Neglect as a Widespread Social Problem - Essay Example

Child abuse and neglect is a widespread social problem that affects all types of family structure and all segments of the population, regardless of individual differences in cultural background, geographic location, or economic status (Finkellor et al, 1990). (However, as discussed in later sections, some groups are at greater risk of child abuse and neglect than others. For example, the poor, uneducated, and young have been considered most vulnerable). Based on some conservative estimates, one to six million aboriginal children are abused and neglected each year in the aboriginal communities in Australia. The devastating impact of child maltreatment on individuals, families, and society at large is well documented in empirical and clinical studies (Gilbert, 1994). Many serious long-term effects have been linked to child maltreatment, including mental retardation, intellectual and intelligence handicaps, impaired aggressive impulse control, diminished ego competency, reduced reality testing, and poor interpersonal relationships. Child maltreatment results in increased antisocial activities. Maltreated aboriginal aboriginal children have more serious personal problems and engage in more antisocial activities and violence toward themselves and others (Hutchinson, Dattalo and Rodwell, 1994). When older, they end up in juvenile and adult correctional facilities at higher rates than aboriginal children from the general population. It is evident that child abuse and neglect is a problem that affects not only the individuals and families directly involved, but all sectors of society. Therefore, in order to deal with this problem, it is necessary for all professionals from all aspects of human ecology (individual, family, community, society, world) to become involved. Aboriginal children throughout the world suffer an array of threats to their development, well-being, and survival (Lindsey, 1994). They suffer from poverty, famine, disease, and war. They suffer as they navigate the child-rearing practices and rites of their diverse cultures. And, they suffer from acts of omission or commission by their individual parents and caretakers. Parental behavior that compromises the development and survival of their offspring seems to contradict the biological and cultural dictates of rearing the next generation (Pecora et al, 1995). This enigma of human behavior demands consideration from a wider range of human cultural adaptation than that afforded by Western societies alone. This chapter will consider definitional issues that have been an impediment to cross-cultural research on child maltreatment. It will then turn to a review of current knowledge concerning categories of aboriginal children vulnerable to abuse, the relationship of kinship and social networks to child maltreatment, and the impact of urbanization and social change. Child abuse is defined as any action (or lack of) which endangers or impairs a child's physical, psychological or emotional health and development. There are many factors that constitute child abuse (Pelton, 1989): Physical Abuse - is any physical injury to a child which is not accidental. This involves severe beating, shaking, burns, human bites, strangulation. Emotional Abuse - is when a child is not nurtured and is not provided with love and security. This involves constant criticism, belittling and persistent teasing. Sexual Abuse - is when the child is involved in any sexual activity with an adult. This involves fondling, exhibitionism, sexual intercourse, incest, pornography. Neglect - is depriving a child of their essential needs. These include nutrition, clothing, warmth and shelter, emotional security and protection, medical and dental care, hygiene, education and supervision. According to Campbell in 1999, a clinical doctor, every case of child abuse leads to permanent damage and great long-term suffering. It may also lead to psychological trauma. Caplan in 1994 defined psychological trauma as the unique individual experience of an event or enduring conditions, in which: 1. The individual's ability to integrate his/her emotional experience is overwhelmed, or 2. The individual experiences (subjectively) a threat to life, bodily integrity, or sanity. (Lindsey, 1994) The psychological trauma of Child abuse has two distinctions, they are the "single blow trauma" which constitutes natural disasters like earthquake, hurricanes, floods, volcanoes or technological disasters such as automobile accidents, plane crash etc. and the other distinction is the "repeated trauma" which is considered the most serious mental health that can sometimes last for years because this prolonged stressors can inflict people's lives rather than accidents caused by natural disasters. Childhood trauma can also hinder to the development of a child's basic tasks and abilities. Such abilities include self-soothing, seeing the world as a safe place, trusting others, organized thinking for decision-making and avoiding exploitation. The hindrance of these tasks to a child can result to an adaptive behavior like agitation, paranoia, psychosis and self-sabotage. Childhood trauma has profound impact on the emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social and physical functioning of aboriginal children. Developmental experiences determine the organizational and functional status of the mature brain. The impact of traumatic experiences on the development and function of the brain are discussed in context of basic principles of neurodevelopment Statistics recorded that hundreds of thousands of aboriginal children are physically abused by their close relatives or family each year and some even resulted to fatality. But for those who have survived the abuse, the emotional trauma remains even though the physical signs of the abuse already healed. Aboriginal children who have been abused may display the following characteristics : (Hutchinson, Dattalo and Rodwell, 1994) A poor self-image Sexual acting-out Inability to trust or love others Aggressive, disruptive, and sometimes illegal behavior Anger and rage Self-destructive behavior Self-injury Suicidal thoughts Passive or withdrawn behavior Anxiety and fears School problems or failure Feelings of sadness or other symptoms of depression Flashbacks, nightmares Drug abuse Alcohol abuse More often than not, the severe emotional damage to a child inflicted by abuse does not flourish until the adolescence age or not until they, too became the abusive parents. Those adults who were abused when they were still a child often encounter difficulty in establishing intimate personal relationships like physical closeness, touching, intimacy, and trust. Moreover "Childhood abuse is the most common cause of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in women, which affects 8% of the population at some time in their lives, although there are a range of other types of psychological trauma that can also lead to symptoms of chronic PTSD, including car accidents, combat, rape and assault. Some of the symptoms of PTSD, which include intrusive memories, nightmares, flashbacks, increased startle and vigilance, social impairment and problems with memory and concentration, may be related to the effects of extreme stress on the brain." Those who were physically abuse were reported as to suffer alterations in memory and experiences deficits in declarative memory because these stressors have lasting effects on the area of a brain which involves the memory and emotions. Even without professional help, psychological traumas will generally subside and the normal and usual daily routine will gradually return (Hutchinson, Dattalo and Rodwell, 1994). However, symptoms may appear gone but will eventually come back in the occurrence of another stressful situation. Professional advice will be needed when a person's daily routine functioning is still continually affected by the abuse. This is called the Post-traumatic stress disorder. Mental health professionals that include the Psychiatrists, Psychologists and clinical social workers have undergone extensive training that highly specializes in child abuse and neglect. These professionals engaged in therapeutic intervention with aboriginal children and families and provide the clinical evaluations, psychotherapy, consultation to child protective services and agencies. Mental health professionals developed the "abused-focus therapy" which focuses on the original abuse context as one of the key issues in treatment. They also developed therapeutic treatment for the physically abusive and neglecting parents. There are also traditional approaches in dealing with psychological traumas. This involves the following : (Hutchinson, Dattalo and Rodwell, 1994) talk therapies (working out the feelings associated with the trauma); Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) involves changing one's thoughts and actions, and includes systematic desensitization to reduce reactivity to a traumatic stressor relaxation/stress reduction techniques, such as biofeedback or breath work; and hypnosis to deal with reactions often below the level of conscious awareness With child abuse reporting rates increasing significantly in most of the countries, one might expect a concomitant rise in out-of-home placement rates. The more problems uncovered, the more aboriginal children to be removed from dangerous conditions at home. It is somewhat paradoxical therefore to find a declining rate of out-of-home placements in almost every country, with the notable exception of the Australia. Why have out-of-home placement rates diminished even as reports of abuse are increasing There are a number of plausible explanations that might be offered. First, out-of-home placements are very costly. In recent years these costs have become more difficult to finance because of increasing fiscal pressures on the welfare systems in North America and Western Europe, where public expenditures are being stretched to meet the rising needs of aging populations (Hutchinson, Dattalo and Rodwell, 1994). Second, beyond the economics of placement, as suggest, there has been mounting evidence about the negative developmental consequences for aboriginal children of disrupting parent-child relationships. At the same time, note growing concerns in England and Sweden, respectively, about state intrusion into the private lives of families, prompting efforts to constrain the powers and role of the state vis--vis parental rights. It has also been suggested that demographic shifts such as lower marriage rates and particularly the increasing proportion of women working outside the home have reduced the pool of potential foster care providers, placing practical limits on the possibilities for out-of-home placements and activity to the less severe and less threatening forms of child abuse than a vast detection of highly dangerous cases of abuse. Finally, in making cross-national comparisons of reporting rates and placement trends it is important to bear in mind several broader factors about the national contexts in which the child abuse reporting systems are embedded. To what extent do the incidence of poverty and drug abuse and the accessibility of public provisions such as day care, home health visitors, and family supplements contribute to the reported rates of abuse and the need for out-of-home placements References Campbell, D. ( 1999)Comments on the sociobiology of ethics and moralizing. Behavioral Science, 24: 37-45. Caplan, Support systems and community health. (1994).NY: Behavioral Publ Finkelhor, D., Hotling, G., Lewis, I., & Smith, C. ( 1990). "Child abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: Prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors". Child Abuse and Neglect, 14(1), 19-28. Gilbert, N. ( 1994). "Miscounting social ills". Society, 31(3), 18-26. New York: Oxford University Press. Hutchinson, E., Dattalo, P., & Rodwell, M. ( 1994). "Reorganizing child protective services: Protecting children and providing family support". Children and Youth Services Review, 16( 5/ 6), 295-308. Lindsey, D. ( 1994b). The welfare of children. New York: Oxford University Press. Lindsey, D. (Ed.). ( 1994a). "Family preservation and child protection: Striking a balance [Special issue]". Children and Youth Services Review, 16( 5/ 6). Pecora, P., Fraser, M., Nelson, K., McCroskey, J., & Meezan, W. ( 1995). Evaluating family based services. New York: Aldine De Gruyter. Pelton, L. ( 1989). For reasons of poverty: A critical analysis of the public child welfare system in the United States. New York: Praeger. Russell, D. ( 1984). Sexual exploitation: Rape, child sexual abuse, and workplace harassment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Read More