Research Methods in the Field of Applied Linguistics - Essay Example

Running Head: Research Methods Research Methods Name of student Name of School Date Introduction There are wide ranges of research methods that are used in the field of applied linguistics but the two main ones that will be used in this case are the case studies and the classroom observations. A case study is termed as a very common and at the same time essential approach when it comes to research in applied linguistics. In this respect to these, the Case studies are termed as being interpretive and qualitative but at the same time it can be combined with and at times it can also include quantitative analyses. Case studies in most instances usually improve the rich contextualization as well as a deep inductive data analysis and this is mostly from a small set of participants, events, sites so as to understand certain aspects of language use and learning. Classroom observations can be termed as the formal as well as the informal observation of teaching while it is taking place in a learning environment or in a classroom. This is typically conducted by administrators, fellow teachers or by instructional specialists. This paper will mainly focus on two qualitative research methods and this will include classroom observations and case study methods. Question 1a: discuss and provide a summary of the key principles and uses of these two qualitative research methods in the field of applied linguistics Despite the fact that qualitative research methods such as the case study and class room observations are referred as being good examples of the nonmathematical analytic procedures and they usually results in research findings and the notion that is commonly held by a great number of people that qualitative research methods are non-quantitative is true but at the same time it is very uninformative (Merriam, 1998). The case study research methods have twelve essential principles and they include the configure effects not the net effects in respect to these principle the outcomes tends to be viewable better when viewed as results of the casual recipes and not as combination of various independent variables and the interaction terms. Another principle is unconscious not conscious thinking and this means that humans tend to have biases and they are likely to favor the belief that individuals plan what they do and know the reasons as to why they have done it and based on there a double whammy over confidence bias usually occurs. The other principle is the dynamic and not cross-sectional principle and it is based on the logic that a great number of the organizational studies, strategic management research and research in marketing are aimed at collecting data and them testing the conceptual model making use of structural equation modeling. The principle of context not context free states that human rational behavior is in a way shaped by a scissors with two blades are the computational capabilities of the actors and the structure of the task environment. Another principle is the predictive validity not just best fit validity based on the case studies can make use of the empirical positivistic analysis methods. The above principle is closely followed by the conjunctive-disjunctive not the compensatory decision-making principle. Based on these principle whine deciding on the actions in certain contexts the groups and individuals involved usually considers two questions that is whether the given action in a way meets the minimum levels that are necessary and whether the given action can offer high performance for critical outcomes. The other principle is termed as the satisfy not optimize principle and the principle centers on the aspects that since humans are likely to be faced by a great number of tasks on a daily basis and therefore they always strive to make certain tradeoffs and more so between effort and accuracy when it comes to decisions making. In reality the decisions makers have been found to rarely look for optimal option to opportunities or problems even though such options may be available. Another common and useful principle in case studies is the unobtrusive evidence not the just obtrusive observations and interviews (Yin, 2003). This principle states that animals and human beings are more likely to report attitudes, beliefs as well as behaviors which do not in any way conform with their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors and more so when they are acting in unobserved contexts. Another principle that is commonly used in case study research method is the visual not just the verbal data collection as well as interpretation principle and based on these the first form of communication from humans is done visually and therefore in addition to the verbal data collection researchers also need to collect and record the visual data. Case studies are mainly applied since they tend to be more adaptable when it comes to dealing with a number of realities. A good example of this is a research on politeness and more so when it comes to the Asian politeness. In this case the two kinds of research methods tend to be more appropriate since a great number of the Asian politeness expressions in most instances connote multiple meanings. Thus, in this case the qualitative methods can in a way offer the nuances as well as intricate details of the phenomena under study that tend to be difficult to convey when people make use of the quantitative methods. The case studies can be effective when it comes to conversation analysis and by use of the two methods one can uncover and at the same time understands the reasons as to why the interlocutor utters a certain speech act and the meaning that is embedded in the speech (Berg, 2007). Qualitative research such as the case study research method is mainly applied by researcher’s in the behavioral and applied sciences so as to deal with issues related to the human behaviors as well as their functioning. The case studies are applied so as to provide them with a deeper and clearer understanding of the social phenomena than that which can be obtained through the use of the quantitative data. A good example of these is when researcher sets out to find out the reason as to why certain individuals prefer making use of hints instead of making direct requests, for instance, through the use of the qualitative methods can also uncover a deeper understanding of the individual’s behavior. It is also believed that based on the fact that the qualitative researchers tend to be more used when it comes to be probing the possible meanings and they tend to be more sensitive to and they are adaptable to the great mutually sharing influences and also value patterns that they may be encountered. The case study is not in any way concerned with the number of samples that have been used in the research but it focuses more on the samples that can offer a great number of answers to the research question under investigation. Thus, it would be essential to note that the case study research methods are best applicable when dealing with certain speech acts, field activities and natural settings (Duff, 2008). b. Key principles and uses of classroom observations applied linguistics There exists a number of guiding principles when it comes to classroom observations and for effective results ones needs to be aware of these principles. The first principle relates to the fact that the observers usually need to maintain a rather sensitive awareness of the potentially for vulnerability that tends to be inevitably accompanies by observation. The other main principle relates to the fact that the presence of a visitor is likely to affect the classroom dynamics and in this respect it would effective to make observations when the people being observed are not aware. This will play an essential role in that the attained results will be a true replica of what needs to be observed. Another principle is that observer’s needs to be aware of the fact that the samples of data that can essentially be brought from the classroom observations are in a away inevitably limited and thus the concept of sweeping generalizations ought to be avoided at all costs. Another guiding principle that people engaging in classroom observations needs to know is that sometimes the task will at times entail essential preliminary cooperation as well as collaboration with the person who will be observed.. In this respect it would be essential to share with the observed individual any of the follow-up discussions relating to the lesson. The experience needs to be rewarding, meaningful and not threatening to all the involved parties (Szulc-Kurpaska, 2014). Classroom observations are also termed as the teacher observations, learning walks as well as walkthroughs. It is crucial to note that much of the qualitative research usually takes place through observation. In simpler terms, observation can be termed as the cat of simply watching and at the same time recording how the participants interact and behave in given circumstances. Though, classroom observation when viewed as a research methods in relation to the aspect of applied linguistics is not very simple as the definition above since the observers may at time be or fail to be part of the action. The main reason as to why classroom observations are conducted is based on the fact that they sets out to assess the job performances and they are mainly conducted by the school administrators and in assistance to the professional learning communities who are termed as a group of teachers who work collaboratively so as to improve their level of instructional skills. In some instances the classroom observations can be conducted by teachers who are in the same content areas and in such cases the teachers shares similar expertise or students or at times they can be conducted by teachers who fall under a wide range of academic disciplines and in such cases the main goal may be to observe and also learn from the varied instructional practices that are applied the various kinds of classes (Szulc-Kurpaska, 2014). Classroom observation also have other important and valid educational purposes and thus they can be termed as the uses of classroom observations and more so in applied linguistics and they include the description of the instructional practices, improve the teachers classroom instruction and this is solely based on the feedback and lastly investigation of the instructional inequities for the different groups of the students (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2004). One of the fundamental uses of classroom observations research is that it plays an essential role in the description of the current status of the instructional practices and also in the identification of the instructional problems. Classroom observations play an essential role in applied linguistics in that it helps in the description of what actually takes place in the classrooms and all this is aimed at delineating the complex issues that practitioners are confronted with and which need to be addressed. Classroom observations are also used so as to investigate the instructional inequities that exist in applied linguistics. Studies have found that teachers in classrooms tend to treat certain students differently from the others and the inequitable patterns of the teacher student interaction in the classrooms usually results in the different outcomes to the students. Additionally, there are a number of studies that shows that there exist a number of gender imbalances when it comes to the pattern of interaction in the classroom. For instance, there tend to be consistent sex related differences in the classroom as teachers interact with the students. In this respect, the boys tend to receive more praise as well as criticism than the girls in the classroom. Teachers are also said to have more procedural behavioral as well as academic interactions with the boys as opposed to the girls. At the same tome the boys are said to ask more questions and the teachers also the boys a great number of questions (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2004). Classroom observations are also used with the aim of improving the teaching practices that are currently being applied. Based on available literature, research by the use of observational methods tend to yield essential information and this has a number of practical implications and more so to the improvement of the teaching practices (Duranti, 1997). A major is that tends to face teacher when it comes to the instruction in the classroom is that they lack accurate and valid information that the teachers should apply so as to facilitate their professional growth. A great number of the teachers even those that are termed to be experienced having spent a considerable amount of time teaching are usually not aware of the nature of the interactions that needs to exists between them and each individual’s students. This is based on the fact that they spend a small amount with students as they progress to other levels of their education. As a result, one of the most essential use that the systematic classroom is usually to improve the teachers classroom instruction. In this respect the feedback from the various individuals classroom profiles that are derived from the systematic observations are said to play an essential role when it comes to helping the teachers in understanding their weaknesses and their strengths and this has been essential in the improvement of the instruction (Duranti, 1997). Through the feedback, the teachers usually become more aware of the classroom instruction and as a result they can bring along the changes they desire in the system. The process usually involves a group of trained observers to systematically observe the students and the teacher in the classroom settings and at a later date they offer the teachers with the information obtained. This approach can be said to be based on the notion that the teacher’s places greater value on the collected information since it is accurate and through this it guides them in making improvements to their instruction. There also exists a lot of evidence that states that the systematic observations can be applied with the aim of improving teaching. In this regard, the teachers can positively change their behaviors as well as attitudes toward the students after receiving the feedback from the classroom observations. Therefore, teachers can in all aspects improve their instruction in the classroom when they are offered with the right kind of suggestions and feedback to make use of it as basis of improvement (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2004). Question 2: Using the same research methods, discuss how you would use them to carry out research on the following aspects of second language teaching and learning i. Teacher feedback by using the Case study as a research method I would make use of the case study as a research method on the teacher feedback as an aspect of second language teaching and learning. I would make use of the case study by assessing the effects of teacher feedback to the performance of the students. On this note it would be crucial to note the feedback is termed as being among the most powerful influences on achievements and also on learning but the impacts can be either negative or positive. The research questions which will be addressed included the following; What is the meaning of teacher feedback The effectiveness of the feedback The manner in which feedback works and the focus of the feedback. The case study method would be appropriate for the above mentioned research questions since it can be termed as an intensive study of the research questions. This is based on the fact that it will allow the investigation and exploration of the research question thoroughly and deeply. This will ensure that the attained results can be applied in a wide range of areas since the questions have been analyzed well and that formidable source has been used (Merriam, 1998). By making use of case studies will offer a lot accurate information which cannot in any way be attained in instances when other data collection methods were used. The method would also be essential for the research questions since it is mainly used in studying social units and more so in their entire perspectives (Berg, 2007). The method is also well suited in addressing the research questions since due to the great number of participants the individuals will be given the analytical power for them to increase their knowledge and more so in respect to the social phenomena under study. I would make use of the case study research method in this project by visiting a classroom setting and collecting any relevant data that would assist me with coming up with data to make the final assumptions. (Duff, 2008). ii. Classroom interaction by using the Classroom observation as a research method I would make use of the classroom observation as a research method to research on classroom interaction as an aspect of second language teaching and learning. The main aspect which I would analyses in how the classroom observations can be used in promoting and improving classroom interaction. The research questions which will be addressed included the following; What is classroom interaction Benefits of relationships Ways of improving interaction between the students Ways of improving the interactions between the teachers and the students. Classroom observations as research methods will address the research questions in that it will offer the administrators and the instructors with a basis upon which they can evaluate the inequities that exists in the classroom setting. Some types of groups of students are at times treated differently in the class and this in a way results in inequitable interactions as well as differences in the learning outcomes (Szulc-Kurpaska, 2014)). Irrespective of whether this is usually a result o other patterns or gender, observations plays an effective role in that it helps in raising questions related to inequity in the classroom and it will offer the educators with the most effective means that they need to apply when it comes to addressing the educational disparities that may be prevalent in a given situation. I will make use of Classroom observation for the project to come up with a lot of information that will assist me in making the final assumptions. I will make the classroom observation with the help from other researchers to assist me in noting other aspects that I may have failed to see on my own. This will ensure I get the right and accurate information and the feedback will play an essential role in helping the teacher to become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses and more so from an outsider perspective (Duranti, 1997). References Berg, B.L. (2007). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston: Pearson & Allyn and Bacon. Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2004). Research Methods in Education. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge-Falmer. Duff, P.A. (2008). Case study research in applied linguistics. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Duranti, A. (1997). Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Szulc-Kurpaska, M. (2014) Observations: The Eyes and Ears of Foreign Language Lessons. In, M. Pawlak, J. Bielak and A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak (Eds.) Classroom-oriented Research achievements and Challenges. Yin, R. (2003). Applications of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Read More