Gender and Sexual Studies: Women in Corrections - Dissertation Example

?Gender and Sexual Studies. Literature Review: women in corrections. Introduction This literature review explores the thesis ment that “Despite gender differences and favoritism, women in corrections can have satisfying and gratifying careers.” The study is structured to review the historical background to women in corrections, and the contemporary provisions to promote equal opportunities for women in corrections. It ends with a review of the current situation for women seeking to pursue successful and gratifying careers in corrections. Historical Background Women’s employment in corrections in a wide range of job is a relatively recent phenomenon. Prisons are traditionally male dominated, and recruitment was initially reserved for men. In the last thirty years legal barriers to the employment of women in correction have been removed. Larger numbers of women are now employed in this sector, but there are still issues relating to the concentration of female employees in certain jobs or facilities (horizontal segregation) and at certain levels in correctional organizations (vertical segregation). In the corrections context the segregation between administration and “frontline” staff, often expressed in the terms “contact” and “non-contact” may disguise deep prejudices about what kind of work is “appropriate” for men and for women. This kind of prejudice is hard to remove. The barriers which now exist are more likely to be cultural and social, as male employees seek to maintain their dominant position. Men are more likely to appoint men, and some of the prevailing cliches about violence and control favour a masculine view of the world. The issue of women being hampered in their career progression by the dominance of men is common in many areas of employment and not just in corrections. There has been extensive work on the “glass ceiling effect” which is what happens when invisible barriers are placed in the way to prevent women from having equal chances against men. (Wirth, 2001) Studies have shown that gender stereotyping has often used by male correction officers in the past to argue oppose integration of male and female staff. Women’s alleged weakness and vulnerability to rape from prisoners, for example, has been often cited as evidence that women officers in prisons are a security risk. In previous years subtle practices like height and weight requirements filtered out many women from particular roles, but nowadays the arguments used for the preferment of men are more likely to be made on the basis of security concerns, or alternatively the rights of prisoners, the majority of whom are men, to have their privacy respected by keeping their living quarters free of the presence of women. Scholars have pointed out that the evidence from the 1980s and early 1990s shows a greater awareness of the issues, but a mixed result in terms of actual career chances for Women. From the mid 1990s onward there is evidence of considerable intervention and positive action to address equal opportunities in correctional facilities. Key achievements such as the appointment of Kathleen Hawk as the first female Director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons in 1992 are evidence of this. Some of the barriers to women’s success are due to the long traditions that have been built up in training and on the job which unintentionally favour men. Feinman describes for example the tendency of women to achieve lower scores than men on a rifle shooting exercise which was addressed at first by offering women extra training. It was noticed that the rifles were unnecessarily heavy: “A new lighter and more effective rifle was selected, and women achieved very high scores immediately” (Feinman, 1994, p. 168) Other factors such as the location of many male prisons in rural areas can make it difficult for women with children to relocate in order to take up promotion opportunities. A minority of women in senior positions also means that there is a lack of female role models and mentors for future generations. Contemporary provisions to promote equal opportunities in corrections. The critical literature traces gradual improvement in the way that women employed in corrections view their promotion prospects (Camp and Steiger, 1995) Some government policies impact on equal opportunities in unexpected ways. The use of veterans’ preference laws, for example, results in a disproportionate number of lower qualified men entering a career path in correction, and this can disadvantage women who are comepeting for the same entry level jobs and are rejected, even if they have higher scores. (Feinman, 1994, p. 170) Furthermore one study on practices specifically in Pennsylvania have shown that attempts to remove bias in selection processes have not always been successful: “There were small test performance differences by race on the test developed in 1992. By gender there was consistent adverse-impact against females” (Sproule, 2001) Research has continued in order to eliminate bias in training and testing of applicants for entry level jobs, with the result that the bias against women has been largely removed. Compensatory scoring on some physical tests, and the inclusion of different types of reasoning and writing test have contributed to this improvement. These earlier flaws in the system are therefore increasingly being addressed so that women entering corrections today can rest assured that they face fair competition that takes account of the real demands of the job, and not artificial barriers that are erected to protect male dominance of the profession. The Department of Corrections Equal Employment Policy number 1.6.1 prohibits any form of discrimination and outlines a complaints procedure which any employee can use if such an instance arises. The definition of discrimination used is “Adverse treatment based on protected class status” and it can be as are result of “a single act or it may involve a continuing policy or practice” (Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Website). The employer has a duty to investigate any such allegation and follow this up with disciplinary action which could be a warning or other sanction up to and including the termination of an employee’s contract. This potentially severe consequence shows how seriously the authorities are prepared to take the issue of equal opportunities. Pennsylvania has been central in the United States’ efforts to improve equal opportunities for staff and inmates from the earliest times until the present day, taking on board suggestions of reform groups, and actively pushing for equal opportunities for staff. (McShane and Williams, 2005, pp. 562-566) Situation for women in corrections at the present time. The long processes of reform outlined above show that there has never been a better time for women to take up a career in corrections. The influence of the modern television and film media can sometimes create a negative impression in the minds of the public about corrections staff as people, and this job as a career option but this is increasingly different from the reality of the job itself. The preoccupation of the media with themes of violence, resistance, and the creation of prisoner anti-heroes makes it difficult sometimes for corrections authorities to maintain an image of professionalism and opportunity. News reporting also has a tendency to sensationalize the negative aspects of the job, and to home in on failures and tragedies rather than reporting the steady good work that is done across the country in protecting society and rehabilitating offenders with professionalism and sensitivity. A number of surveys report an advantage for men in the available promotions but it is very small, for example a study based on 740 employees of the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections in 1996 reported that “Forty six per cent of male respondents were promoted compared with 42 per cent of female respondents.” (Shaffer, 1999, 84) The same study reported that at last females (along with whites, people with college degrees and those who began their careers before age 40) are entering the corrections career path in greater numbers of men. This is an indication that initiatives in Pennsylvania on childcare, and especially on training and education are offering real chances of advancement for women. There is still some way to go but at least these matters are now on the agenda and being addressed across the state. A useful part of these developments is being played by information giving websites hosted by government and other agencies. The Pennsylvania Corrections Department Website for example makes frequent reference to “professional and ethical behaviour” in all its training documentation and maps out paths for recruits and newly appointed staff through its academy. The National Center for Women and Policing provides an excellent networking opportunity and many resources, mostly from a feminist perspective and with an emphasis on police rather than corrections. Many of the issues are very relevant to the context of prison facilities, and there are many guidelines for dealing with the difficulty that women continue to have in frontline law enforcement contexts. By publicizing up to date data and research, this site helps change the perception that things are not improving for women. The American Correctional Association also provides a large range of resources specifically targeted at employees, including free access for members to journals such as Corrections Compendium and training courses. Student opportunities are offered, such as internships, and there is clear indication of the grade point average required to participate (2.0 or higher) and the very wide range of different study routes that can lead to different career paths. Such facilities are changing the way that new entrants view corrections, and encouraging women to apply.. Besides the many official websites that are available for women entering corrections, the emergence of social media such as facebook and facilities like blogs and message boards creates a worldwide support and information network in which women can share their experiences and gather tips for their careers. The isolation that women experience on the ground in some facilities can be removed by tapping into this sort of support, much in the way that tradition men’s networks of drinking or sports clubs have provided mutual support in previous ages. There are still some issues that are in need of further research. Legislation has been improved, and recruitment trends corrections are increasing the ratio of women who are taking up this area as their life’s work. An increase in older women, and in women from minority ethnic groups is diversifying the workforce still further. One pressing area is that of the invisible barriers to women’s progression once they have embarked upon their career. Still more research is needed on the factors that hold women back. Despite this, the image of the corrections is improving, and the reality of the job is also providing satisfaction for an increasing number of women in Pennsylvania and across the United States. References Camp, S.D. and Steiger, T.L. (1995) Gender and Racial Differences in Perceptions of Career Opportunities and the Work Environment in a Traditionally White, Male Occupation. In N.A. Jackson (ed.), Contemporary Issues in Criminal Justice: Shaping Tomorrow’s System. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 258-277. Feinman, C. (1994) Women in the Criminal Justice System. Westport, CT: Praeger. McShane, M.D. and Williams, F.P. (2005) Encyclopedia of American Prisons. NewYork: Routledge. National Center for Women and Policing Website. Available at: http://www.womenandpolicing.org/default.asp Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Website. Available at: http://www.cor.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/department_of_corrections/4604 Shaffer, J. S. (1999) Life on the Installment Plan: Careers in Corrections. Corrections Today 61 (7), 84. Sproule, C. (2001) The Selection of Entry-Level Corrections Officers: Pennsylvania Research. Personnel Management 30 (3) , 377 ff. Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (1993) Gender and Racial Inequality at Work: The Sources and Consequences of Job Segregation. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press. Turner, T. (2005) Recruiting and Retaining Women in Corrections. Corrections Today 67 (6), 104ff. Wirth, L. (2001) Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management. 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