Human experimentation - Term Paper Example

Human Experimentation al Affiliation Human Experimentation In one’s research on the history of human experimentation, it was revealed that humans had been used for experiments and research as early as the 6th century B.C. where it was reported that young Jewish prisoners were used in meat and vegetable experiments, as revealed in the Books of Daniel, until documented 2001 cases (Sharav, n.d., par. 1). Another study evaluated the history of human experimentation across two time frames: before that Nazi regime and after it (Kalechofsky, n.d.).

Recently, there have been news reports alledging illegal human experiement reportedly conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Milloy, 2013). The actual collective and bottom-line benefit to society would be difficult to quantify. According to Goski (2011), “science-based medicine depends upon human experimentation…without human testing, they will never know if the end results of all that elegant science will actually do what it is intended to do and to make real human patients better.

They will never know if the fruits of all that labor will actually cure disease. However, it is in human experimentation where the ethics of science most tend to clash with the mechanisms of science” (Goski, 2011, par. 1). Theoretically, scholars would have wanted to assert that human experimentation can be justified when greater good of society is at stake. This is actually the reason why several guidelines have been earmarked to establish rules that aim to adhere to ethical, moral, and legal standards with regards to using humans in experimentation (Kalechofsky, n.d.).

The work of Ivy (1948), later known as the Nuremurg Code, explicitly stipuated guidelines in terms of observing quality of experiments, as well as the people conducting the experiments; and needed safeguards: “Quality of experiments and experimenters: (2) must be "for the good of society" and results "unproduceable by other means;" (3) must be based on results of animal experimentation; (8) should be conducted by "scientifically qualified persons."Safeguards: (5) No experiment should risk death or disabling injury, "except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects;" (6) risk should never exceed the importance of the problem to be solved; (9, 10) experiment should be designed to be stopped at any point by: a) scientists if continuation is judged "liable to result in bringing disability or death to experimental subject; or b) by the human subject” (Ivy, 1948, pp.

1-5; cited in Kalechofsky, n.d.).From these guidelines, it could be deduced that the emphasis on the goal or outcome supposedly serving a utilitarian precept was most evident. In contemporary times, the need for informed consent has been stressed; but the controversial nature of potential subjects who apparently are not capable of providing informed consents remain debatable. It was disclosed that “usually the human beings used for experimental purposes were--and are-- the disenfranchised, populations of prisoners, orphans, the mentally retarded, charity patients of all kinds” (Kalechofsky, n.d., par. 16). Therefore, to answer the question: can human experimentaion be justified when greater good of society is at stake?

One strongly believes that if the human subject is aware, knowledgeable, willing to volunteer, is provided with accurate information on the potential effects of what is being undertaken – supposedly, for the good of society; then, that particular endeavor for which human experimentation needs to be undertaken and could not be possible through any other means should have sufficiently complied with all these premises (including established ethical, moral, and legal standards) that make it justifiable.

ReferencesGoski, D. (2011, March 7). Ethics in human experimentation in science-based medicine. Retrieved from Science-Based Medicine: http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/index.php/ethics-in-human-experimentation-in-science-based-medicine/Ivy, A. (1948). The History and Ethics of Use of Human Subjects in Medical Experiments”. Science, Vol. 108,1-5. Retrieved from Science.Kalechofsky, R. (n.d.). History of Human Research. Retrieved from ahrp.org: http://www.ahrp.org/history/history.phpMilloy, S.

(2013, January 1). EPA’s illegal human experiments could break Nuremberg Code. Retrieved from The Washington Times: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/dec/31/epas-illegal-human-experiments-could-break-nurembe/Sharav, V. (n.d.). Human Experiments: A Chronology of Human Research. Retrieved from ahrp.org: http://www.ahrp.org/history/chronology.php