Women's Role in the labor movement - Research Paper Example

?Introduction A trade union, or a labor union, is defined as a coalition of workers who voluntarily come together to achieve common goals and objectives (Dumont and Hacourt). Often, the ultimate goal of these organizations is to secure higher pay for workers, better working conditions and promotion. The process of collective bargaining is deployed whereby the leaders negotiate either directly with the concerned entity or through an arbitrator to come to common terms of agreement. The history of trade unions dates back to the Industrial Revolution when mass industrialization and exploitation of workers and poor living conditions gave birth to the concept of worker rights (Dumont and Hacourt). The role of women in trade unions has presumed great significance today as the notion of gender equality and anti discrimination lawsuits become rampant. Women have assumed increasingly greater importance in trade union activities particularly in the United States, U.K, Netherlands and Canada (Curtin and Jennifer). The paper discusses the role of women in labor unions both in the United States and in Europe. The Case of U.S.A The history of women’s role in labor unions in the United States dates back to 1765 when “Daughters of Liberty”, a first of its kind society for professional women, was established (Tax). Thereafter, in 1824, women’s rights in the workplace assumed their significance when , in Rhode Island, 102 women workers called a strike, to support their brothers ( who were weavers) in an attempt to protest against the decline in wages and the introduction of long working hours (Anne). In 1825, however, this concept was taken to heights when the first union comprising of women only was formed under the banner of “The United Tailoresses of New York” (Tax). In 1831, approximately 1600 women of this union called on a strike, demanding a just and fair wage rate (Tax). IN 1845, Sarah Bagley formed “The Female Labor Reform Association” in protest of the 12-13 hour long work day and gave a call to reduce it to 10 hours along with improvement in sanitation and safety facilities at cotton mills in Massachusetts (Tax). The acceptance of women in labor unions was gaining ground which was marked by the first of its kind inclusion of women and African Americans at a national level, in the leading trade union of that time- Cigar. From here onwards begun the journey of women in labor unions at a nationwide level. In 1869, women shoemakers established a national labor union by the name of “Daughters of St Crispin” at Massachusetts (Tax). This gave birth to the concept of Equal Opportunity in America, when in 1872, the Congress, for the first time, passed a bill whereby women working at the federal level were given the same pay for the same nature of work as their male counterparts (Tax). The notion of protests by women workers for their rights continued and, in 1881, Black women in the laundry sector hosted the biggest ever strike in history till then. In the same year, over 1800 women workers won the bill whereby women doctors were made mandatory for women patients at mental health clinics (Tax). In 1889, however, the concept of women’s rights at workplace was extended beyond that reflected by strikes and protests (Tax). Jane Adams established a “full house” for social welfare of women in order to enhance their personal development and increase the recognition of their efforts in the society. It was in this year that the concept of social entrepreneurship in the context of women truly took shape and set the stage for others to follow suit. The concept of social welfare then extended to other spheres of life in 1898 when Charlotte Perkins Gillman, through power of the ink, conveyed the importance of women to be economically and financially independent (Martens and Mitter). As years passed different modes of expressing women’s rights in the workplace came into shape. For instance, in 1899, National Consumers League was established to steer and empower women consumers to use their power to achieve the goal of ensuring better working conditions for women workers (Martens and Mitter). In 1903, the National Women's Trade Union League was formed to protest against poor working conditions and low wages for women (Tax). In 1909, a riot led by 20,000 women workers took place, protesting against poor conditions at sweatshop (Martens and Mitter). The journey of women’s rights continued over the years, as women progressed from their unskilled positions in factories and shops, to more skilled positions as teachers, nurses, and lawyers. In 1986, for the first time in American history, the United Federation of Teachers was led by a woman (Tax). In 2008, around 70% of the American Federation of Teachers was women, indicating the progression in women’s working status over time (Martens and Mitter). The Case of Europe Factors affecting women’s participation in Trade Unions In a study conducted by European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) the role of women in labor unions was discussed with insights into the reasons why women’s membership in trade unions is increasing and what are the factors giving birth to this phenomenon (Dumont and Hacourt). The increase in female membership of trade unions, according to the ETUC, can be explained by the fact that majority of women are now taking up employment and have become career oriented, which was previously not the case (Dumont and Hacourt). Furthermore, there are now specific drives and campaigns that are particularly targeted at women; thus, their concentration in trade union membership is increasing. However, the findings of the study are quite interesting. According to the ETUC, despite the fact that lower trade union membership in Europe is being accounted for by men rather than women, women still remain underrepresented in trade unions compared to their male counterparts (Dumont and Hacourt). Although, the participation of women in labor unions has increased manifold over the years, their participation is still limited due to a variety of factors. Firstly, it has been found that women lack awareness of the potential advantages of gaining trade union membership. Secondly, they fear retaliation by their employers who might demote them or fire them after coming to know that they have joined trade unions. Hence, most women feel threatened of losing their current jobs if they join trade union. Thirdly, and most importantly, women often miss the chance of joining trade unions because they lack time and resources required for doing so due to being preoccupied with family responsibilities. Hence, a woman who is working and has kids finds it hard to squeeze out time for other activities such as trade union membership. Other researchers have come up with varied interpretations of women’s under representation in labor unions. One such interpretation is that women do not like to work on the “front” or prefer subdued roles for themselves in the workplace (Fiona and Sue). Hence, they prefer not to come into the limelight which they can achieve by not actively taking part in trade unions. Another explanation offered is that some women simply lack interest in trade union activities, hence, they don’t join (Anne). Other researchers also suggest that it is only natural for women to leave trade unions (Dumont and Hacourt). Some researchers have also concluded that the withdrawal of women from trade unions is the result of more generalized environmental factors that limit the role of women in several spheres including this. This explanation has been offered particularly with respect to the way women’s work is looked down upon as well as the way in which women’s work life competes directly with family chores and the resulting misbalance between work and life that leads to relationship problems between couples. Finally, the way the workings in trade union are controlled also does not favor women’s participation in trade unions (Dumont and Hacourt). Recent trends in women’s participation in trade unions have reflected a paradox characterized by lack of women’s representation in trade unions related to occupations in which their numbers are rising. This is partially explained by increased participation of women in sectors related to service ( such as nursing etc) as well as part-time, flexible working opportunities (Dumont and Hacourt). Hence, the falling numbers of women participation in trade unions is accounted for by the fact that they may be less interested in joining them; rather, it is a reflection of the fact that they are engaged in those sectors of the economy where trade union membership is scarce already (Dumont and Hacourt). Women’s role in Trade Unions- a General Analysis A French document published in June 2000, titled “Le Monde Diplomatique”, portrayed the fact that trade unions typically are not feminist in nature. In light of this paper, several researches have been conducted in an attempt to unearth the role of women’s participation in decision-making organizations. Research conducted by surveying the European Trade Unionism and related organizations associated with the European Trade Union Confederation in the context of Europe as a whole in 1999 pointed out the phenomenon of ‘Second Sex’ by contending that although the participation of women in decision making organizations increased manifold during 1993-1999, they remain under represented in decision making activities of trade unions (Bernard and Ada). The results of a survey carried out by ILO and ICFTU in 1999 depicted that the union representation of women was not proportional. In almost 60% of the trade unions in question, women accounted for less than a third of the total trade union membership (Dumont and Hacourt). Similar studies were conducted in France whereby a research conducted by the French Social and Economic Council in 2000 depicted that the ratio of women to men in trade union membership was not reflective of the ratio of women to men in the actual workplace; in fact, it was less than that. However, trends vary across organizations and differences may arise as to the relative proportions. Other studies conducted in 2000 in France regarding the proportion of women in decision making trade union organizations appreciated the undisputed advancement made by trade unions in advocating for more equal opportunities; however, it also outlined the issues with respect to bringing women’s role at par with men’s as far as the former’s decision making role in trade union organizations was concerned and concluded that there were marked difficulties in doing so. The studies outlined major causes of women’s lack of representation in decision making areas of trade unions. Firstly, the evidence of discrimination and the resulting prejudice that was shown in unfavorable reactions towards women occupying decision making roles in trade unions (Dumont and Hacourt). This has its roots in the larger social issue of discrimination and stereotyping which leads to women taking up less prominent positions in the workplace. The result of this is that women are discouraged to take up prominent, decision making roles in labor unions. Secondly, in some trade unions, it has been discovered that the existing rules and procedures are rather rigid, allowing for little flexibility towards the inclusion of women in decision making roles (Dumont and Hacourt). Thirdly, changing demographics such as the increasing number of single mothers, and the accompanying child rearing responsibilities add to women’s difficulties in maintaining a work life balance, leaving little or no time for extras such as trade union decision making activities (Dumont and Hacourt). Fourth, the culture inherent in trade unions is often regarded as “male-oriented” especially with respect to the way meetings are handled; including the timings, style, jargon used etc (Dumont and Hacourt). Supporting research shows that there has been preferential treatment towards men over the years mainly because some jobs are attributed as “men’s jobs” and some as “women’s job”(Alvarez and Moser). Furthermore, taking on decision making roles in a trade union automatically implies that the person be available at most times, which is often difficult for women whose work responsibilities compete with those of the family. There are certain activities (such as settlement of individual disputes, professional meetings with other members etc) that specifically require that they be done outside the timeframe allotted for regular job. In this way the activities of trade unions usually directly compete with those of personal life, taking away a precious chunk of time for mothers who are longing to spend time with their families. Fifth, it has been concluded by several researchers that women occupy jobs that are inferior to those occupied by men in the contemporary marketplace (Dumont and Hacourt). It is not surprising, thus, that women’s role is subordinated to that of men’s because it is assumed that women tend to physically weaker than men and family laws in some societies force women to take on a role secondary to that of men (Alvarez and Moser).Furthermore, women are particularly influenced by progression in unusual jobs. This acts as a stumbling block for women taking up responsibility in trade union decision making activities and ultimately stifles their membership in the same. With respect to European Trade Unions in particular, research has concluded that the under representation of women is more evident at the national and global level rather than the branch and regional level, simply because of the fact that at the higher the position, the stronger is the battle to win a seat (Dumont and Hacourt). This phenomenon, in common terminology is often referred to as the Glass Ceiling and is subject to debate by many. The term “glass ceiling” was coined by the U.S Department of Labor in 1986 when it was discovered that women represented only 2% of top management positions and 5% of corporate board positions (Weiss). After having controlled for factors such as age, education, experience, skills and parental status, women still received only 81% of the pay of men for similar nature of work (Ashkanasy, Wilderom and Peterson) . The paper shall now attempt to delve deeply into the social discrimination of women and its arguments. A Brief Background of Gender Discrimination and its validity The Oxford dictionary describes discrimination as the “unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex”. Discrimination adds to the woes of females in the society by lowering their morale and threatening their self-esteem which is a basic need according to Maslow’s need hierarchy (Gillam). By feeling threatened, productivity of females is sure to go down to the extent that organizations lose valuable human potential (Crosby, Stockdale and Ropp). On the other hand, suits of discrimination result in costly lawsuits against the firms and can result in loss of reputation and goodwill which cannot easily be recovered. It is therefore, of utmost importance that organizations, including trade unions, address this area by curbing discriminatory practices. However, the notion of discrimination itself maybe criticized as merely a ghost feeling by females with ‘victim mentality’ (Metz and Moss). According to research, discrimination is more often superficial than real. Women often attribute their retarded growth in organizations to external factors, the strongest of which is discrimination. Using attribution and stigma-consciousness theories as their model, researchers have concluded that females are most likely to attribute their poor performance at organizations to sexual discrimination because of their past knowledge of the same (Metz and Moss). Thus, discrimination can be a myth rather than a reality. This ‘victim mentality’ could in fact hurdle a woman’s capability to attribute poor performance to internal factors (Metz and Moss). In other words, such state of mind can lead women to adopt an external locus of control as opposed to an internal one. Stigma consciousness can be explained as a “one’s focus of one’s stereotyped status” as opposed to recognition of one’s stereotyped status. (Pinel). In the research, Pinel concluded that there stigma consciousness and perceptions of discriminatory behavior are positively co related (Pinel). People high in stigma consciousness tend to recall more instances of discrimination compared to those who rank low (Pinel). At the individual level, women who rank high in stigma consciousness expect the behavior of their male equivalents to be discriminatory towards them (Pinel). Consequently, women bring out negative behavior from their male counterparts by behaving critically towards them (Pinel). Another research was conducted by Pinel where stigma consciousness was ‘situationally’ induced among participants. The results provided evidence to the fact that the levels of stigma consciousness influence the victim’s attributions for performance feedback. It is often true for people to experience the ‘spotlight effect’ and thus experience insecurity as to whether the stereotypes of their group (in this case women) are valid or not (C. Steele). Subsequently, they try to attribute the response to discrimination in an attempt of self-defense (C. M. Steele). Several factors, such as low self-esteem, lead to such attributions, not just stigma consciousness (Major and Sidanius). Recent research has also proved that men and women are equally likely to attribute negative outcomes to discriminatory behavior. (Major and Sidanius). Furthermore, it is important to recognize that other factors, apart from discrimination, can lead to limited advancement of women in trade unions, the most primary factor being family responsibilities. Research has proven that mothers are more likely to take the primary responsibility for taking care of their dependants than fathers. (Greenhaus and Parasuraman). Since this is the case, women are more likely to take career breaks in order for nurturing their dependants (Judiesch). In contrast to this work-family dispute, some factors such as the amount of work hours, education levels and career ambitions are becoming increasingly similar in the two genders (Howard and Bray)(Metz and Simon, A focus on gender similarities in work experiences at senior management levels: a study of an Australian bank builds the case) and these factors have a significant impact on employee progress in trade union organizations (Metz and Tharenou, Women’s career advancement). Research has proven that women, on average, are less ambitious as far as their career is concerned than men (Van Vianen and A.H.). But this too can be argued on the grounds that women do not pursue their ambitions simply because they know they’ll not get due representation at top management levels; in other words, their expectations shape their present choices (Bandura). Furthermore, even if women are ranked as assertive, decisive, intelligent and resilient they would not be promoted to senior positions in trade union organizations on the grounds of sexual discrimination as is the case with most women throughout the world (Jackson, Esses and C.T.).The root cause, therefore, is discrimination. Another major theme in the context of women’s role in trade union membership is that of diversity management. The term diversity management includes identifying the differences that exist among individuals in terms of race, color, religion, sex and ensuring that their concerns are addressed in the organization (Greene and Kirton). The concept of diversity management has extended far beyond provision of equal opportunity employment and affirmative action (Burke and Cooper). It is not just religion, race, sex or color that distinguishes one individual from another but several other factors (Burke and Cooper). This has been taken into account by the diversity management initiative. Trade Unions at present offer little or no diversity management programs. The dilemma of trade unions is the need for ‘adverse impact’ to make its way to the boardroom. Leadership (of the trade unions) must decide to what extent it is to include or exclude employees of a particular race, religion or gender as their members. Diversity management is of little use unless the issue of adverse impact isn’t addressed. Mentoring too can help and can be made a part of the overall diversity management initiative. Several women in trade unions are a victim of a vicious cycle in which the advancement of women in an organization is seen as a violation of social norms which leads to cases of discrimination in organizations; which, in turn, reduces morale of women and ultimately stifles their growth within organizations. Hence, women’s under representation in trade unions is not a new; it is a product of the traditionally inferior status women have been subject to in the workplace compared to their male counterparts. Since majority of the managers in trade unions today are males, this is necessary to break the glass ceiling. Managers who are rewarded this way tend to be less inclined to indulge in discriminatory practices (Monin and Miller). Hence, one major factor contributing to poor representation of women in trade unions is their historically inferior roles in professional positions. In the light of above arguments, most researchers conclude that the paradox whereby, on one hand women are taking up professional careers in increasing numbers, and on the other hand, women are subject to discrimination and are marginalized in every aspect compared to their male counterparts is reflective of the fact that women are denied equal representation and say in trade unions. Positive Action It is interesting to note that, traditionally, women from different occupations have all virtually demanded the same basic rights that trade unions call as “outside the scope of their activity” (Martens and Mitter). These rights include those related to equality, integration, abortion, child birth control and sharing housework. Hence, these increasing demands by women are ignored just because they labeled as ‘private’ affairs by trade unions (Martens and Mitter). However, circumstances have changed with time and the approach of trade unions has changed for the better. In the contemporary world, trade unions are proactively taking steps towards ensuring that women have a say in decision making. This is termed as Positive Action and has taken various forms ranging from Conferences aimed at women, the formation of women’s groups, Commissions aimed at promoting equality, Departments comprising specifically of women and assigning people responsible for ensuring parity, the formation of quotas, reserved seats for women, assurance of comparative depiction of women in all spheres, the creation of novel ways in conducting trade union dealings and enlightening women in executing responsibilities (Kirton and Greene). Thus, events related to gender discrimination and equality are no longer thought of as ‘out of the box’ by trade unions, rather they are a constant part of the agenda considered by these unions. Trade unionists have come to terms with the fact that the inclusion of women in trade unions today means, albeit in more intricate ways than previously, desegregating them by providing them on the same platform as that of men. This marks the fine line between feminist activities and those of trade unions. Hence, the bigger picture is essentially that the participation of women in trade unions today not just symbolizes protection of their rights in the workplace but also in other social spheres of life. Although it has been advocated by some researchers that there is a positive association between the two dimensions of internal equality (meaning the number of women represented in trade unions and other professional bodies) and external equality (meaning the formation of constructive agreements regarding equality), others advocate that sometimes, women in trade unions fear being indirectly occupied in the advocacy of women’s rights (Martens and Mitter). These women have their reasons. As Ardura Anita and Silvera Rachel have pointed out, women who actively take part in feminist movements, often tend to stay behind the curtain and prefer not to come to the limelight for fear of being accused of creating socio-economic divisions amongst members of the society and trade unions and ultimately being rejected by the society. Thus, they often prefer to stay away from activities that actively call for women’s rights in order to do away with the identity of a “feminist” (Martens and Mitter). Other researchers, however, have noted that women’s problems are often taken up under isolation, which is based on the notion that their role is made inferior to that of their male counterparts (Curtin and Jennifer). The fact that in most societies the issues of men are taken up as class interests and those of women as sectional interests, deters women from promoting their concerns for fear of being labeled as creating disharmony in the society. However, union discussion regarding equality highlights the aspect of equal and fair treatment and any attempts to cater to diversity would come into conflict with this objective. This boils down to the discussion earlier in the paper as to whether the notion of addressing the issue of discrimination is discriminatory in itself. It is thus thought that by addressing the fact that men and women are treated differently, unions are actually discriminating between the two genders and promoting inequality. Thus, the basic dilemma of trade unions today remains unanswered and the question arises as to how to come to terms with the fact that workers come in various shapes and sizes and ought to be treated differently (Martens and Mitter) (Dumont and Hacourt). According to this belief, the concept of a single socio-economic class or identity does not exist because of the inherent differences between each individual which makes each worker different from the other (Dumont and Hacourt). Thus, it is believed that politics in organizations can play a constructive role, only if no particular practice is generalized to the entire workforce. Compartmentalization in trade unions is said to occur when, on one hand the problems are labeled as women’s issues, and on the other hand as work issues (Dumont and Hacourt). The challenge lies in ensuring a constant, continuous effort to addressing the issue of gender inequality rather than making it an annual practice and waiting for 8th March to take its turn (Dumont and Hacourt). Over the years the practical response towards issues related to equality has been negligible. The viability and workings of trade unions have been under debate for over 30 years, with respect to issues such as underrepresentation of women and the fruitfulness of efforts for promoting social equality (Dumont and Hacourt). It is unfortunate that majority of the work done under the banner of trade unionism neglects the very notion of gender equality and fails to address it in light of social, economic and political issues. Positive Action and Gender Mainstreaming The purpose of positive action is therefore to take into account the above issues and incorporate gender as a parameter in all aspects of trade union activity. With the increasing popularity of positive action, attention and resources have been diverted towards have procedures in place because of the increasing realization that advocacy for equal rights is not just women’s domain but everyone’s. The concept of gender mainstreaming has thus been added to that of positive action since these two approaches go hand in hand. Gender Mainstreaming has, for long, been thought of as a long term process; however, it has been sidelined since a long time and hidden behind the curtains in an attempt to decrease the positive action and other initiatives that have targeted women (Anne). As far as Europe is concerned, the notion of Gender Mainstreaming has caught much attention as researchers are conducting research at a comparative level keeping into context trade unions and trade itself. To this end, in 2001, the project of MSU (Mainstreaming and the Unions) was taken up actively and was executed on a three year term basis (Dumont and Hacourt). The objective of this project is to understand the process of gender mainstreaming and to explicitly define it, execute it and spread it in trade unions. The end result kept in mind is “good practice” (Dumont and Hacourt). Researchers also attempt to examine the degree to which the notion of gender mainstreaming is influencing the workings of trade unions which remains a challenge to date. On one end it is believed that taking into account gender differences and allowing for greater equality in trade unions shall improve the working conditions and terms of employment for a large proportion of the population: women; on the other end it is believed that the notion of incorporating Gender Mainstreaming is challenge in itself, and the very inclusion shall decide the intensification of social discourse (Dumont and Hacourt). Finally, by raising people’s concerns for greater parity in the society and increasing the proportion of women representation in trade unions and other decision making bodies, the current issues surrounding trade unions, including reduced membership, can be done away with and a more promising future for trade unions can be offered. Conclusion To conclude, the inclusion of gender discussion into trade unions and incorporation of the gender parameter can prove to be a significant turning point for trade unions. However, this is not a one way effort; trade unions need to be significantly persuaded by the significance of this challenge by committing true political resolve, resources and the required mechanisms to control and monitor it. Furthermore, since the notion of trade unions has conventionally been regarded as a male-only domain, it is the duty and responsibility of women to continue to organize themselves in trade unions in a manner that they are not sidelined, so that their decisions and recommendations as members can be taken up seriously and be reflected in the workings of trade unions. References: Alvarez, Fred W. and Allison Moser. "Targeting Employers for Gender-Based Pay and Promotion Discrimination: The Next Big Thing?" Employee Relations Law Journal 36.3 (2010): 46-53. Anne, Munro. 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