Advanced research design - Term Paper Example

? Advanced research design Response to question Purpose. To determine the efficacy of an intervention in preventing weight gain within the college freshman. Research design. This study was an ethnographic design. An ethnographic design is normally a qualitative method of research that is aimed towards understanding and learning certain phenomenon, which may reflect in one way, or another to the systems and knowledge that guides the life of a certain group. This design is employed in gathering data that are empirical on cultures and societies of humans. Data collection in ethnographic design can take a form of a questionnaire, an interview or observation. In this study, the collection of data was done using the internet based behavioural intervention for increasing physical activity and healthy eating. The interventions used in this study were presented to the participants through the email. This means that the intervention were in the form of a booklet. The sample for this research was made up of consists of college freshman of ages between 18 and 20. The participants were enrolled with the fact that they were willing to complete an internet-based behavioural intervention program to prevent weight gain. The participants were volunteers from a local university and were randomized to either a group of the intervention group or a control group. The dependent variable for this study was the efficiency of the intervention, whereas the independent variable was the different behavioural change for increasing physical activity and healthy eating by individuals who took part in the intervention. The controlled variable for this study was the participants’ ages. This is because the age of the participants did not have any effect on the reduction of weight. Despite the different ages of the subjects, there were no proofs of the age effect on the intervention efficiency response because change in the intervention efficiency response was due to the increasing physical activity and healthy eating by the participants. Hypothesis. The hypothesis for this study would be that increasing the physical activity and healthy eating increases the efficiency of the intervention where as reducing the physical activity and healthy eating will reduce the efficiency of the intervention used. Plan for statistical analysis of the hypothesis. Procedure Materials used. To analyse the hypothesis, the apparatus that would be used for include: A recorded CD, Oral and written explanations about the intervention, a research study, a response booklet and scale to rate the intervention efficiency. An example of such a scales used are: 1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8--------9--------10 Not at all Very much. In this scales, digit 1 represent little efficiency where as digit 10 represent increased efficiency. Procedure. All subjects will be given oral and written explanation on research and the intervention through heir emails. The subjects will then be given behavioural intervention with highlighted concerns on the process of increasing the physical activity and healthy eating. In this case, the intervention will be made up of various physical activities and tips on healthy eating. The participants will take part in the intervention activities and record all the details from one intervention to another. The subject would measure their weight gain when having little physical activities and when having increased physical activities. Using a scale, the participants will describe the experience in the process of intervention by rating their efficiency of the intervention. All the results obtained would be recorded in a table. Discussion. A table with data on the extend of physical activity, healthy eating, and weight gained would be established. The increase in physical activity and healthy eating would be compared with the weight gain of the participants. The mean, standard deviation, and the mode for the data would be established (Bowling, 2007). A graph of weight gain against the physical activity and healthy eating level would be plotted. Data from the scale will help to determine the efficiency of the intervention. Additionally, a graph with a positive gradient would indicate increased efficiency of the intervention. A graph with a negative gradient will indicate a reduction in the intervention efficiency. The obtained results would be compared with prior studies and a conclusion derived on whether the intervention was efficient. In this respect, the hypothesis for this study would be verified and either accepted or rejected. Type of sampling. This study, used was a simple random sampling. The characteristic of this sampling is that the chance of choosing a population sample is same for each case. It is a method of picking n units out of a size population N such that all the possible samples have an equal probability of being selected. In this study, participants were randomly selected assigned to different groups. The chance of choosing one participant was same as that of choosing another subject. However, random sampling has some limitations. It has been shown that as much as randomness of the process of selection makes sure there is unbiased choosing of subjects. The biasness in this sampling type is that it results into the selection of a sample that gives a wrong representation of the entire population. Such random variation that is independent of human bias is often difficult to be pinpointed. However, the chances of incurring these sample errors increase with the decrease in the sample size. In this study, the researcher can make use of a large sample size to minimize the likelihood of the freak results. In this method, n units will be picked out of a size population N such that all the possible samples have an equal selection  probability. A large sample size would help reduce the chance of results that are freaked. The appropriate sample size for this study would be determined by making sure that the size is enough for avoiding freak results and ensuring that the population sample is of ages between 18 and 20 years old. A moderator involves a quantitative or qualitative variable that has some effects on the strength direction of the relation between a dependent and independent variable. In this study, the potential moderator variable is the weight gain for the participants. On the other hand, mediator variable give an explanation of how external physical situations affect the internal psychological significance. In this study, the potential mediating variable is the physical activities and healthy eating habits of the participant. Response to question 2. Hypothesis. IUDS could lead to infertility. Retrospective design. Participants. The participants of this study would be chosen from a group of women who became infertile due to one reason or another. About 15 women who are infertile would be selected for this study. Procedure. In this study, the collection of data would be obtained from secondary data This data could be obtained from the health records of the subjects for the past there decades. The health records would be analysed on whether they became infertile due to IUDs use. The subjects can be classified as unexposed or exposed depending on their health records. After this, a conclusion is made concerning IUDs and infertility. A table with data on fertility and IUDs use would be established. The fertility would be compared with the use of IUDs. The mean, standard deviation, and the mode for the data would be established. A graph of IUDS use against fertility level would be plotted. A graph with a positive gradient would indicate justify the hypothesis of the study. A graph with a negative gradient will imply a rejection in the hypothesis. The obtained results would be compared with prior studies and a conclusion derived on whether the use of IUDs leads to infertility. In this respect, the hypothesis for this study would be verified and either accepted or rejected. Prospective design. Participants. The population sample for the study was obtained out of a group of women who are currently using IUDs. These participants have not displayed any signs of infertility. About 15 participants for this study would be selected. Procedure. All subjects will be given oral and written explanation on infertility and IUDs. The subjects were then given response booklets with highlighted questions on IUDs use that needed to be answered. They will be asked to give a brief explanation of whatever transpired when they started to use IUDs. A questionnaire will be provided to the participants. The subjects would be asked to answer all the questions in the questionnaire. After completion of the test, the response booklets having all responses will be collected for analysis. In this study, the procedure of data collection and questions would be designed keenly so as to get the appropriate information regarding the exposure before the development of the disease in the participants. After collection of the baseline information, the subjects would be followed longitudinally for a period of a year. This will help the researcher to determine when and if the participant would develop infertility with continuous exposure. After this, the hypothesis would either be accepted or rejected depending on the outcome of the research. Strength and weakness of Retrospective and prospective designs. The strength of retrospective design is that the collection of data is fast and takes pace for a short duration of time where as the strength of prospective design is that the collected data is first hand rather than the biased second hand data in retrospective. The weakness of retrospective design is that the data collected is second hand and may be biased or the opinion of an individual which lacks internal validity. In many cases, the data presented under the secondary data collection cannot be trusted as reliable and valid because they will not have any empirical backing The weakness of prospective design is that the process is time consuming. Response to question 3. The research design of this experiment is the prospective research design. Threats to validity. Temporal ambiguous precedence. This study lacks clarity concerning which variable happened first, and lead to confusion concerning the variable responsible for the effect and the cause. Confounding. The alterations in the dependent variable could be linked to variations existence or the degree variation of a variable referre3d to as third which could be linked t the manipulated variable. If relations that are suspicious are carried out the hypothesis that is the rival to the original inference one, could be established. Selection bias. This is the problem in which at pre-test, the group differences may exist hence interact with the variable that is independent and causing the outcome observed (Bowling, 2007). The participants and the researcher may bring to study different traits that could be inherent or learned. While selecting the participants, whenever a similar test subject posses equal variable there exists a threat to internal validity. History. The responses of the participants in this study could be affected by the event in the outside environment of the participants. More often than not, these are events that are large scale and affect behaviour and attitudes of the participants. This makes it hard to establish whether the change in the depended variable is a result of the independent variable. Maturation. In different situations subjects may change during the experiment of in between the measurements. In this case, upon the study completion the researcher could not find out whether the discrepancy cause is as a result of time or independent variable. Repeated testing. The repetition of measurements may result into biasness inthe participants. This implies that subjects could remember the right answer or conditioned to know that they are going through a certain test. This would lead to gains in the scores hence giving the hypothesis a significant rival. Instrument change. The instruments for testing could alter the experiment. When observation is primed, the criteria for coming up with judgements would be altered unconsciously. This is the same with measures of self report that are provided at various times. This will mitigate the affect by using the pretesting that is retrospective. A chance in the instrument affects the internal validity of the study. Validity and Internal validity The aims of the study designs are determining how the outcome or the disease relates with the exposure given validity and precision with the use of minimum resources. Validity is that lack of confounding and, whereas bias is an error that is committed by the investigator while conducting a study or a design leading to a wrong association between exposure and disease. On the other hand, confounding does not happen due to the investigators fault. But, it shows that epidemiologic research is accomplished within the free-living human beings with characteristics that are unevenly distributed. Because of these factors, epidemiological studies, which try determining the relationship that exists between the exposure and the outcome, are always prone to disturbing factors called confounders. Precision occurs for cases where there are no random errors that result into an association between a disease and the outcome only by chance. Precision, therefore, is a force that is uncontrolled seeming to have no assigned causes. The data that should be used should lack validity. This is because of existing confounding and bias in conducting the research. There was a problem with study design. The research might fail to stratify the samples of study subjects at the beginning and during data analysis. There are various factors that can confound the results obtained from various reports. Other factors other than the health inequalities might be the cause of the differences in the levels of deprived. When calculating the gap between the areas that are most deprived and the least deprived areas, it is concluded that cancer, respiratory diseases and circulatory diseases are the greatest causes for the life expectancy gap. The other factors that lead to reduced life expectancy might have confounded the results. Ignorance, poor hygiene, inadequate health care facilities, contributory negligence, lack of information about the existence of health care facilities might explain the gap between the regions that are most deprived and the least deprived. Bias is another potential factor that is common for observational studies. It results due to systematic errors in designing, conducting and analysis of the study resulting in having wrong estimation of effects of exposure of the outcome due to the investigator, as well explains why there is invariability in the data used. Assumption made prior to the research where the investigator assumed that the lower the persons social status the worse his or her health, shows some form of bias. In essence, it assumed from the onset of the research that what theory gives as true applies in East Sussex such that it is obvious that the less deprived areas like the case of Hastings experiences worse health. This presents some form of bias in the research while doing the analysis. Measurement of reliability and validity of the research cannot be underestimated in any way. As a survey, it is the level of reliability and validity that will give the research the needed credibility for its findings to be generalized (Bowling, 2007). Due to this, there are several factors to be put in place to ensure that the results are highly reliable and valid. Some of the factors include the selection approach used in selecting secondary sources of data for research. In the absence of such selection mechanism, the data presented under the secondary data collection cannot be trusted as reliable and valid because they will not have any empirical backing. Another factor has to do with the use of random sampling technique to select members in the sample size. With that technique, the implication is that the researcher shall have no control whatsoever over the results. Even more is the extensive reliance on quantitative data analysis method. With quantitative data analysis, figures and values shall be displayed for all people concerned to have their own calculations to check the accuracy of results. Finally, the researcher is based on a compromise to ethical standards such as the confidentiality of respondents. This means that there shall not be any legal issues to litigate the research findings. In some cases, legal litigations lead to the withdrawal of certain components of data, rendering the whole research conclusion compromised and academically paralyzed. Conclusion. Study designs provide direction to research at the same time systemizing it. Research design in this context is essentially the protocol through which the study is carried out. Research designs differ by characteristics, which each design having its merits and demerits. The design that a researcher chooses directly or indirectly affects the results at the end of it all, and it also translates to the conclusion to be reached, as well as the final findings. More often than not, scientists are always interested in getting results that are reliable because such results would help understand the phenomenon under investigation. There are several types of studies for research designs. They fall into two main categories. They are experimental and observational study designs depending on whether the exposure. Experimental research designs are used when the researcher that is conducting the study does assign the exposure to the participants of the study. For the experimental study, should the exposure be assigned in a random manner, the study type becomes a randomized controlled trial or otherwise it will be a randomized controlled trial. The observational research study occurs when the exposure status is not assigns. In this case, the investigator measures and observes the exposures already occurring. . In the observational studies, in case comparison group is not there, then the study design becomes descriptive design, but if comparison group is there then the study design is called an analytic study. Observational studies are further categorized into three study designs. They are the case control, cross-sectional and the cohort studies. A cohort study is a study design in which the population is described by exposure status with determination of the outcome. A case-control study is a study design in which the population is described by disease status or outcome status with the exposures being determined. Finally, the cross-sectional study is a study design in which both the outcome and the exposure status are determined at the same time. The types of research designs to be employed shall employ a prospective, randomized controlled study as a research design. This study is quite appropriate given that the design is a scientific experiment in nature. It is, therefore, appropriate to use this study design to test the efficacy of a type of intervention within the population of patients. This study design helps provide opportunities to collect useful information concerning the adverse effects. It is also worthwhile to mention that this study design has an advantage of properly randomizing, which ends up minimizing the allocation bias, hence balancing the unknown known prognostic factors. Research has shown that this study design is the most appropriate for conducting any scientific study. However, this method is time consuming and quite expensive. References Bowling, A (2007). Research Methods in Health – investigating health and Health Services Open. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Read More