A discussion on Health Related Issues and Interventions for School Age Children - Research Paper Example

?A discussion on Health Related Issues and Interventions for School Age Children Introduction Research identifies that the most difficult stage in child development is the mid and later stages of development. Most school age children are between these ages and thus they are most affected by factors in the external environment that pose a danger to their development. A number of health related issues arise at this age and their successful mitigation helps children develop normally into adolescent and adulthood. Without proper measure in place to address these health related issues, developmental problems may arise ranging from behavioural problems to physical and mental problems. This paper is going to look at a number of child health related problems such as childhood obesity and overweight issues, bullying, accidents and injuries, social network and the media, child abuse and neglect and the various interventions that could be employed to either prevent or lessen the impacts of these issues on school age children. Childhood obesity and overweight Last year, the Australia bureau of statistics reported the continued rise of childhood obesity over the last 40 years. The report indicated that the level of childhood obesity has increased substantially and is even projected to approach adult rates within 30 years. The report showed that 26.1% of children between the ages of 5-15 were overweight or obese in 2007-08. In 2009 the same was 26.5% making a 0.4% increase in one year (ABS, 2011). The report attributed this rise to sedentary pursuits which include watching television and playing computer games. In 2005 the world health organization reported that 20 million children under 5 years were overweight. Latest statistics by the World health organization also indicate that 40 million children under the age of five years are overweight or suffer from obesity in 2010. These statistics are quite alarming making the issue a global concern (WHO, 2012). Scholars argue that overweight and obesity in childhood especially in older children can lead to serious and severe obesity and weight issues in adulthood. They also say that childhood and adolescent obesity poses a higher risk of premature death and disability later on in life (Kumanyika & Brownson, 2007, p. 51). Literature also suggests children who are obese or overweight normally encounter several physical risks and are at a greater risk of social isolation. Such children also are at the risk of developing psychological disorders than those who are in a healthy weight range (Vichuda L Mathews, 2011, pp. 4-6: Justin, 2005, p.84). Research also indicates other consequences of overweight and obesity and these include the development of chronic conditions such as chronic respiratory problems such as sleep apnoea and breathlessness; chronic musculoskeletal problems such as lower back pains and osteoarthritis; gall bladder disease and impaired fertility and well as chronic cardiovascular problems (Dehghan, Akhtar-Danesh, & Merchant, 2005, p. 24). Scholars have proposed a number of strategies in which childhood obesity could be reduced. Such intervention measures have been in existence for quite some time now. Their application is case specific and some could still be applied to solve the problem generally. Telford et al. (2012, 371 )in their study found out that an appropriately designed and administered physical education program (PE) is capable of producing benefits for elementary school children by reducing the percentage increase of body fat but also led to significant enhancement of numeracy development. Other studies have also supported the idea of physical education in helping in the primary prevention of overweight and obesity. Davis et al. (2012, p. 243) in their study propose school based initiatives that include physical activity and also provide opportunities for physical education and recess programs as very important in the prevention of obesity. It is argued that physical activity helps reduce adiposity in overweight obese youths. However, little evidence is available to support the use of physical activity in preventing childhood obesity, though most scholars agree that physical activity is a primary prevention strategy for obesity. Davis et al. (2012, p. 245 )proposes a number of intervention measures to prevent childhood obesity and these include: patient level interventions strategies such as proper nutrition by avoiding consumption of sweetened beverages, eating diets with appropriate quantities of vegetables and fruits, limiting sedimentary behaviour such as watching television and increasing physical activity. Harkins (2007, p. 165 ) on the other hand argues that preventions should begin at the earliest possible age where children should be given appropriate nutrition requirements; physical activity must be promoted at the tender age through physical education programs and preventing food marketing to children that reduces their intake of junk food. Bullying A recent survey carried out in 2008 indicates that bullying in Australian schools is among the worst in the world. The survey of schools carried out in 36 schools made these concluding remarks. The survey also showed that students in primary schools were the worst affected and suffered bullying at a rate of 50% above that of the international average. This placed Australia in the worst category for bullying in the same category as Kuwait, Qatar and New Zealand that were positioned as being the worst in the world (ABC, 2008). The survey and its findings are quite alarming making it a priority for various stakeholders to engage themselves in preventing this vice. Dresler-Hawke & Whitehead (2009, p. 195) define bullying as “The exposure of a student, repeatedly and systematically over time, to intentional injury or discomfort inflicted by one or more other students. It is a form of aggressive and distressing behaviour aimed at individuals usually manifested in either direct physical, verbal, or psychological attack.” The problem of bullying is thus recognised a worldwide problem affecting school age children at all levels. Its prevalence in primary schools in Australia is worrying because of its consequences. Pearce, Cross, Monks, Waters, & Falconer (2011, p. 2) identify some of the consequences of bullying. They argue that students who are bullied suffer from direct injury or physical harm and distress; negative long term mental, social and physical health outcomes. It is also greatly linked to the risk of delinquent behaviour that includes the increased use of alcohol, substance abuse and violence. Other scholars also have added their voices on this issue saying that bullying leads to low self-concept; they experience psychosomatic symptoms and high post-traumatic stress levels (Houbre, Tarquinio, Thuillier, & Hergot, 2006, p. 201). A number of researchers have proposed several ways in which to prevent all types of bullying. McMurray & Clendon (2011) say that a healthy school environment is what is required to counter bullying. This works by eliminating the power imbalance that leads to many of the consequences of bullying. They also argue for peer support for all students to help them in their development at the school. Other researchers such as Pearce, Cross, Monks, Waters, & Falconer (2011) have added their voices to the whole issue and proposed the multidisciplinary whole-school intervention as effective in countering bullying in schools. This targets the school, home and individuals through the use of policies, promotion of appropriate school climate, peer support, behaviour support, engaging parents and working with higher risk students. As much as theory suggests that bulling could be prevented through education interventions that aim at educating the students about the dangers of bullying studies have shown that educating the students does not actually prevent them from engaging in bullying. Hunt (2007, p.24) concludes her study by saying that short term educational approaches have very little impact on the bullying behaviour and that it would be very appropriate for schools to look for other intervention measures to help reduce the chances of bullying experienced in schools. Other researchers say that preventing bullying should begin with the individual students by teaching them the advantages of co-existing peaceful and the effects that bullying has on the development of others. System wide measures should be developed that incorporate both policies and different stakeholders such as parents, individual students and the school administration in ensuring that school age children are not subjected to the problem of bullying (Dresler-Hawke & Whitehead, 2009, p.196: Sanchez, 2001, p. 157: Carney, 2001, p. 364). Dresler-Hawke & Whitehead (2009, p. 196) on the other hand propose the Behaviour Ecological Model (BEM) as key to addressing the problem of bullying by saying that the model “the model is more concerned with broader ecological, cultural, economic and environmental determinants of individual and community health” and its application to bullying does not only involve “a simple campaign to reduce bullying in schools but rather a shift in the attitudes of the whole community.” Accidents and injuries Research shows that accidents and injuries are the number one cause of child death across the globe. The most interesting fact on the other hand is that they are the most preventable causes of death because of the ease with which they can be prevented (Smith, 2011, p. 858). The issue of safety has always been a concern during child development especially during the middle and the late childhood. Children are very active at this time and this is good for their physical and cognitive development. However, this activity may at times cause them direct injuries as they go about with their activities. Santrock (2008)notes that the most common cause of severe injury and death in childhood is motor vehicle accidents with most occurring at or near the child’s home or school. The basic thing to understand is that the active nature of children is what leads them to sustaining the injuries and being involved in accidents. Santrock (2008) says that the accidents and injuries at this time of child development are usually preventable. He goes ahead to name a number of preventable childhood accidents which include: motor vehicle accidents, drowning, poisoning, falls, burns and bites from insects, snakes and dogs. A study by Schalamon et al. (2007) on school accidents in Australia established that sports injury were a predominant cause of severe trauma compared with other activities either at school or outside school. Injuries during ball-sports accounted for about 44% of the severe injuries. The upper extremity was most frequently injured (34%), head and neck area (26%) and injuries to thorax and abdomen accounting for 8%. The study also established that half of all school related injuries occur in children between 10 and 13 years of age. Gender also influenced the study such that boys were found to be frequently injured during soccer, violence and collisions both at school and outside school and during craft work. Girls on the other hand have the highest risk of injuries at ball sports other than soccer. A number of interventions have been proposed to help address the problem of childhood injuries and accidents. Santrock (2008) says that motor vehicle accidents can be avoided if children are taught designated places for cross roads such as zebra crossing signs. The children should also be taught to avoid playing on the roads which puts them at the risk of being knocked down by vehicles. Parents have also a role to play by ensuring that their children are wearing seat belts while in the car. Other measures that may help prevent accidents include child monitoring especially when children are playing at risky places for example at the swimming pool. They should be monitored so that they do not drown. Another possible intervention is to ensure that all the toys and other equipment that the children handle or play with are safe (Santrock, 2008). All the broken pieces should be repaired and pieces of glass that might be in the playing field safely disposed. Children not only get injured at school but also at home and thus the need to ensure that they are under surveillance so that they do not play with dangerous materials that may cause them harm or injuries. They should thus be restricted from fireplaces, handling chemical products, playing with dogs and heights that cause fatal injuries when they fall (Shea, 2004, p. 146). Social networks and the media The 21st century has its blessings and what we may call curses to people’s lives. Such is the emergence and the use of the internet. The wide spread and the use of the internet has grown tremendously with it being used in almost all aspect of people’s lives. The internet expansion and development has brought about the aspect of globalisation which has led to the compression of the time aspect of human processes. With the internet any information can be accessed anywhere at any time increasing efficiency and processes especially in organizations. However, with its development have emerged other issues of ethical concern such as privacy issues. The emergence of social networks by the end of the 20th century has made things even worse as far as privacy over the internet is concerned. Children are usually exposed to the internet at an early age especially in the developed countries. They end up divulging a lot of personal information on the internet which puts them at risk of identity theft and other kinds of problems on the internet. At the same time, the curious children are exposed to pornographic materials and other obscene images which corrupt their morals. Psychologists argue of the importance of preventing children from accessing violent materials saying that it affects their psychological as well as behavioural development (Ferguson, 2004, p. 25: Flood, 2009, p. 384). The continued exposure of children to pornographic material over the internet has thus damaging effects on their personality as well as their psychological and emotional development. Bryant (2009: 1) notes that the probability of exposure to pornographic materials by school age children is very high in Australia and many other parts of the world due to the ease of access via the internet. He also notes that exposure to pornography by children especially between the ages of 10 and 13 contributes to the perpetuation of sexual violence and inhibits the development of positive relationship skills. The exposure to obscene materials is not only seen in the case of the internet but also other kinds of media such as film and television. These affect the development of children and thus stern actions should be taken to avoid the damaging effects that the exposure has on children. A number of interventions have been proposed in order to help solve this problem. First parents are advised on the need to implement parental control features on the computers that school age children use at home and thus limit their ability to be exposed on such materials from the internet. Second are system wide reforms in policies that include the censorship of materials that contain adult content and thus not suitable for children. This includes the rating of films which reduces the risk of them being watched by children thereby reducing the risk of exposure (Levine & Elders, 2003, p. 105). However even with the policies in place, the rapid developments in technology and the ease of access it provides to this content makes it difficult to enact a full proof mechanism to prevent children from accessing the content. Child abuse and Neglect Child abuse and neglect is not a new thing. Statistics across the world continue to show the increase in the number of cases of child abuse and neglect. In Australia, both the state and the territorial governments have the mandate to protect children from abuse and neglect. Statistics show that there were 286,437 reported cases of child abuse and neglect nationally between 2009 and 2010. This marked a drastic drop of 16% from the 339,454 reports that were made in 2008-09. Reports indicate that this represented the first decrease in 10 years. The decrease was attributed to a number of legislative changes that have taken place in Australia. Such legislations include the changes that were made in the NSW children and Young persons (care and Protection) Act 1998 that raised the reporting threshold from “risk of harm” to Risk of significant harm” (Lamont, 2011). With this worrying trend in the country people need to begin to realise the consequences of child abuse and neglect. Child abuse and neglect affects school age children leading to problems in their childhood development. Psychologists argue that child abuse and neglect has many consequences on children and these include physical, behavioural and societal consequences. Physical consequences may include damage that may be caused to the child’s brain, body injuries and accidents among others. Psychological consequences may include such issues as cognitive delays or emotional difficulties that affect the psychological development of the child. (Perry, 2001, p. 24) These are usually linked such that the psychological problems often manifest themselves in form of high risk behaviours such as depression and anxiety. This may make individuals to engage in such activities as smoking and drugs and substance abuse. In turn the high risk behaviours can lead to long term physical health problems such as cancer, obesity and sexually transmitted infections. Scholars have linked child abuse and neglect to some physical health outcomes which include shaken baby syndrome, impaired brain development and poor physical health. They have also identified poor mental and emotional health, cognitive difficulties and social difficulties as psychological problems associated with child abuse and neglect (Glaser, 2003, p98). Currie (2010, p. 111) says that child abuse and neglect may cause behavioural consequences that include difficulties during adolescence, juvenile delinquency and adult criminality and abusive behaviour. A number of interventions have been proposed to address the problem of child abuse and neglect. Scholars argue that child abuse and neglect interventions should be aimed at initiating system wide approaches that will help in protecting children from abuse (David, 2005, p. 78). Such interventions should be aimed at addressing issues at the individual level, the family level and the community level. Children should thus be nurtured, safe and engaged. Families should be strong and connected at the same time they should get support and be free from substance abuse and mental illness. Communities on the other hand should be caring and responsive and that the vulnerable communities should be in a position to respond when such problems are identified (Tomison & Poole, 2000, pp.30-35). Conclusion As a child grows he/she is faced with a number of health related issues to deal with. The early developmental stages of the child are very crucial moments in the child’s life and thus care should be taken to see to it that they are safe. This discussion has thus raised five key health related issues that affect children and also given some insight into statistics to show the gravity of the issues. All the five issues ranging from childhood obesity and overweight, accidents and injuries, bullying, the social networks and the media to child abuse and neglect, are almost at the same level and thus have comparable consequences on the development of the child. On the extreme is child abuse and neglect which is seen to have a drastic effect on children and their development. However, all these issues can be prevented as we have seen through a number of strategies and interventions that have been proposed by scholars. The most important thing is to ensure that these strategies are sustainable so that children are kept safe and healthy. References ABC. (2008, December 14). Bullying in Aust Schools among the worst in the world: Survey. Retrieved June 11, 2012, from ABC: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-12-14/bullying-in-aust-schools-among-worst-in-world/239124 ABS. (2011). Overweight and Obesity 2011. 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