An Evaluation of Application of Study Skills - Book Report/Review Example

page: The Development of Rechargeable Battery Technology Anode Development The existing rechargeable or secondary batteries avail different forms of carbons. Currently, lithium ion batteries, the leading forms of carbon, include hard carbon, graphite and microspheres as the negative electrode (Ritchie, 2000). At the same time, the application of carbon as a negative represents the lithium ion system along with lithium interaction into the carbon preventing the use of lithium metal in the manifestation of negative electrode with the hazards, which could be observed from possible uneven dendrite formation along with lithium plating. However, a new electrolyte system has been evolved and developed ensuring the safe plating of lithium (Ritchie, 2000). As a result, this discourages the use of negative electrode especially in the FORTU battery, which operates with a metal-free system; in which, lithium is generated within the battery on charging from the cathode system using lithium cobalt oxide (Hambitzer et al., 2000). However, this system does not use nothing other than the application of sulphur dioxide electrolyte; and, the use of electrolyte provides a number of advantages such as the cathode remains similar to the one used by the standard SONY system (Ritchie, 2000); however, the reduction of weight can be achieved if the use of an intercalating carbon negative electrode is avoided. However, Idota et al. (1995) provides the recent research over tin compounds as the negative electrodes to replace the carbon, is being underway, soon after the announcement made by the FUJI of lithium batteries availing this system. Electrolyte Development Electrolytes based on the mixtures of organic carbonates have received much attention and have become the standard for lithium ion batteries. And, more importantly, the recent developments have been carried out over the different mixtures of ethylene, propylene, diethyl, ethyl, dimethyl and methyl carbonates to reach at the best low temperature performance; however, the temperature performance below the mark of -20 degree centigrade is accessible with numerous mixtures of the above mentioned compounds. And, this application would be more useful for the domestic requirements and for the other requirements such as the military applications require much lower temperature performance along with the applications of electrolyte systems, such as acetates, which need to be, incorporated into the carbonate mixtures (Herreyre, et al., 2000). The FORTU battery can be used to approach low temperature performance. And, the FORTU battery consumes the standard lithium cobalt oxide cathode material; but, the electrolyte becomes liquid sulphur dioxide with tetrachloraluminate, known as LiA1C14 , as the electrolyte salt; the application of this solution receives a freezing point below -80 degree centigrade along with a conductivity at room temperature of around 10 times that of organic electrolytes. As a result, this system has higher capability of power; collectively both, higher power capability and the low temperature performance become highly essential for the military applications. In addition to that, polymer electrolytes are being rapidly developed especially those of the gelled electrolyte type; Owens (2000) states that as with the liquid electrolyte cells, the production remains concentrated particularly in Japan. On the other hand, Tanaka (2000) opines that the performance of gelled and liquid electrolyte cells can be compared for cells having the similar construction made by the same manufacturer. However, Dias et al. (2000) disagree with this notion and put forward that pure polymer electrolytes have been considerably investigated, yet the problems such as poor low temperature performance along with low conductivity constantly occur. As a result, Letourneau et al. (1997) suggest that the only application remains for the uses in the above-ambient temperatures. Cathode Materials The standard cathode materials include lithium cobalt oxide, LiCoO2 for the lithium ion batteries. It possesses a number of advantages such as long cycle life and reliable performance sufficient enough to outweigh its disadvantages such as high cost of moderate toxicity and cobalt metal along with moderate capacity of 130mAh g-1. And, Ritchie et al. (1999) highlight that the lithium cobalt nickel oxide, LiCo0.2Ni0.8O2, was already known during the time of last International Power Sources Symposium. Rechargeable lithium/sulphur dioxide liquid cathode batteries were avoided for the commercial production due to the higher chances of safety concerns. However, the recent approach from Battery Engineering (Inc.) renews efforts in this direction to make a lithium/sulphur dioxide rechargeable cell but with the use of lithium foil negative to work as a lithium source. While discharging, the lithium reacts to generate the normal discharge product for a lithium/sulphur dioxide primary batter, known as lithium dithionite, Li2S2O4, which subsequently can be converted as a source of lithium ions. In addition, a variant on the rechargeable lithium/sulphur dioxide battery consumes a copper chloride cathode instead of just using the electrolyte as a liquid cathode (Ritchie, 2000). On the other hand, some efforts over oxides as cathode materials and some efforts over sulphides have also been carried out. The major advantages of such types of material are much higher capacity such as 400m Ah g-1 for Li2FeS2, cf. 130mAhg-1 for LiCoO2. However, the voltages remain much less such as 1.8 V for Li2FeS2, 3.6 V (nominal) for LiCoO2, though the higher capacities of electrochemical should more than compensate for it (Ritchie, 2000). Sharma (1976) suggests that one factor prohibiting the use of lithiated transition metal sulphides has been the slow, inconvenient, and high temperature solid state syntheses of the above mentioned materials. Lithium manganese oxide spinel (LiMn2O4) continues to derive attention due to the toxicity advantages of manganese over the cobalt along with the lower price. However, some problems still exist; despite making a considerable improvements, the basic problem with lithium manganese oxide spinel persists in its material, having a very lower electrochemical capacity (110 mAh g-1), along with the presence of the instability during the process of storage in the charged states, besides, having a very limited cycle life. They may be caused by the presence of the greater sensitivity of manganese compounds than the cobalt ones to perform hydrolysis with the use of acidic impurities in the electrolyte generating from the lithium hexafluorophosphate electrolyte salt. The aggregate analysis stipulates the fact that as the major work fails to eradicate such problems, it looks that they remain insuperable; and, the chances of the use of manganese oxide spinel seems less attractive. Battery Construction Batteries are developed and supplied in cylindrical cans or prismatic construction, though envelope or pouch cells can also be made, both for liquid and polymer electrolytes (Ritchie, 2001). Subsequently, battery cells are assembled into a battery pack, which must be attached with the equipment which it is providing the supply of power; however, this method rejects the possibility of joining the battery into the equipment itself; and have been undergone the process of investigation for highlighting the specialist applications for instance space (Olson et al., 2002) and air vehicles (Thomas et al., 2002). The construction of space battery requires the use of a rigid carbon composite anode providing and enabling the structural strength in the battery (Ritchie, 2004). In addition to that, for the unmanned air vehicle application, the Telcordia plastic lithium ion battery technology is applied; however, as this battery remains intrinsically flexible, it is stiffened by supplementing the structural materials either internal or external to the plastic bag, containing the battery. On the other hand, the micro-battery uses the lithium cobalt oxide cathode material, lithium anode, and lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LIPON) solid electrolyte. The construction or development of batteries is achieved by the process of evaporation or vapour deposition, known as sputtering of the materials; the batteries physically remain thin along with the active components only micrometres thick; as a result, very high currents and capacities can be secured for the size of the battery. Due to its good charge retention and serve similar to the duration of the primary battery, they are now commercially available as well (McDermott et al., 2002). In prismatic and cylindrical formats, the batteries are now widely available. In addition to that, Doisneau (2000) states that the cells have also been developed with the help of new battery technology using a flat spiral wind construction. Ritchie et al. (1999) highlight the benefits of using new technology that in order to save weight along with the inclusion of light-weight packaging can also be availed with the application of new techniques developed for the construction of secondary or rechargeable batteries. However, more recently, Tanka (2000) points out the fact that lithium ion batteries consisted of either gelled or liquid electrolytes have been developed as well with the application of the light-weight packaging. Moreover, no difference for energy densities has been reported rather using either electrolyte remains similar at about 160-170 Wh kg-1. Battery Performance Energy densities pertaining to the range of about 140-150 Wh kg-1 have been developed and available in cells using metal cans, having the better high densities of 160-170 Wh Kg-1 in cells with the packaging of the light-weight (Tanka, 2000). However, the developments and improvements in the secondary battery technologies receive promising prospects for higher energy densities. Such as, the application of the lithium cobalt nickel oxide cathode material at the place of the lithium cobalt oxide; enhances the Coulombic capacity from the range of 130 to the level of 180 mAh g-1; an aggregate 40 percent increase can be entertained by this development. In addition to that, lithium-free batteries- e.g. SO2 electrolyte/LiCoO2 cathode- by which around the capacity of 200 Wh kg-1 can be claimed as well; moreover, the battery performance can also be increased with the application of the light weight packing, giving an a total of 20 percent rise in the battery performance as well. Also, the development of new cathodes, e.g. sulphur compounds in the battery technologies have also contributed towards the improvements in the battery performance as well. On the whole, these improvements, collectively or individually, authenticates that further considerable enhancement in the energy density for lithium rechargeable batteries remain an accessible or possible reality; in which, the chances of further development of 200-250 Wh kg-1 look promising in the foreseeable future. The closer analysis of this development leaves no doubt about the claim that a doubling of the energy density in comparison with the range available a few years ago which was around 100-110 Wh kg-1. In addition to that, Ritchie (2001) states that these energy densities upgrade the energy density of lithium ion batteries near about up to seven or eight times that remain available from lead-acid, which remains in the range of 30 Wh kg-1. However, the battery performance cannot only be judged from the available energy density; the importance of power cannot be undermined as well. As with any sort of battery, the power obtained from the lithium ion cells does not only rely on the chemistry but also on the provided design. In this regard, Chagnon et al. (2000), however, contend that some batteries based on the lithium ion have been designed and developed for the purpose of availing higher power. In addition to that, higher power cells had power ratings around the capacity of 800 Wkg-1 (continuous) or around the capacity W kg-1 on 18 s pulses (Ritchie, 2001). Aggregately, these are considerably higher values highlighting that lithium ion batteries can become a higher power devices; however, certain limitations of this aspect cannot be undermined as well. For example, a higher power design will put effect over the energy density, with high power batteries filled with energy densities of only around 80-100 Wh kg-1, in contrast to high energy batteries achieving around 140 Wh kg-1. However, the battery performance can also be analysed in light of the cost benefit analysis approach. In addition to that, the battery performance can also be weighed in comparison with the battery size and in comparison with the battery weight as well. subsequently, judging the battery performance in relation to the cost offers another way to highlight the factors directly or indirectly improving or decreasing the performance of the lithium ion batteries. In addition to that, partial replacement of the expensive cobalt in lithium cobalt oxide by nickel brings the reduction of the cost pertaining to the cathode material as well. moreover, the certain compounds such as manganese have become accessible too and would be cheaper still; and, sulphur compounds, for either cathode or electrolyte would offer additional reduction in the cost as well. New Applications for Lithium ion Batteries Camcorders, portable computers and telephones receive the use of the lithium ion batteries for their functionality. The existing applications of lithium ion batteries have become premium applications for the consumer market. Originally, the lithium ion batteries were developed for the camcorders; however, they can also be utilized for devices such as the portable telephones and computers as well. and, the applications of the lithium ion batteries for the electric vehicles have also been touched and have been extensively investigated. However, the results of the investigations highlight the higher costs required to incorporate lithium ion batteries for charging the electric vehicles. Similarly, the numerous manifestations of the lithium ion batteries have necessitated the need to carry out the further research as its military applications such as underwater applications (Chagnon et al., 2000) have become more in need than ever before. Briscoe (2000) also points out that the lithium ion batteries can also be used for the purpose of the aircraft main batteries. In addition to that, Gitzendammer et al. (2000) state that they are fully convinced that the applications of lithium ion batteries can also be used for space and space related activities. Furthermore, Goodwin et al. (2000) feel confident about the applications of lithium ion batteries can also be used for the batteries for portable electric equipment. References Briscoe, JD (2000) ‘Feasibility of Li ion batteries for the F-16 aircraft in’: Proceedings of the 39th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, USA. p.211 Chagnon, G, Doisneau, R, Descroix, JP, Goldsborough, R (2000) ‘Saft lithium ion technology for underwater applications’: Proceedings of the 39th Power Sources Conferences, Cherry Hill, USA. P.244 Dias, FB, Plomp, L, JBJ, Veldhuis, (2000), Trends in polymer electrolytes for secondary lithium batteries, Journal of Power Sources 169 (88). Doisneau, R (2000) A Different Type of Lithium ion Battery, Batteries 2000, Markets & Technologies for Portable Electronic Devices, Paris. Gitzendammer, R, Marsh, C, Ehrlich, G, Puglia, F, March R, Vukson, S, (2000)’ Advancement in lithium ion technology for aerospace applications’, in: Proceedings of the 39th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, USA. Goodwin, D, Gale, D, Neat, R, Macklin, W, Jeffery, A, (2000), ‘The design of smart Li ion batteries for military applications’, in: Proceedings of the Conference on 39th Power Sources, Cherry Hill, USA, p.156. Hambitzer, G, Doge, V, Stassen, I, Pinkwar, K. Ripp, C, (2000), ‘Characteristics of a new inorganic lithium metal battery system for high energy and high power generation’ in: Proceedings of the Conference on 39th Power Sources, Cherry Hill, USA, p.200. Herreye, S, Huchet, O, Barusseau, S, Perton, F, Bodet, JM, Biensan, PH,(2000), ‘New Li ion electrolytes for low temperature applications in’: Proceedings of the 10th International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Como, Abstract no.282 Idota, Y, Nishima, M, Miyaki, Y, Kubota, T, Miyasaki, T, (1995), Non-aqueous Secondary battery, European Publication 651, 450. Letourneau, M, Gauthier, Belanger, A, Kuller, D, Hoffman, J, (1997), ‘Lithium polymer battery pack design’ in: Proceedings of the 14th International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exposition, EVS14, Orlando, FL, USA. McDermott, J, Neudecker, B, Foster M, (2002), ‘Thin-film solid-state battery for long life and low power military applications,’ in: Proceedings of the 40th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, USA, June 2002, p. 25 Olson, J. Feaver, T. Pomasl, C. Lyman, P (2002), ‘Development of a structural lithium-ion battery panel,’ in: Proceedings of the 40th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, USA, June 2002, p. 128 Owens, BB (2000), Solid state electrolytes: overview of materials and applications during the last third of the 20th century, the Journal of Power Sources 2 (90). Ritchie, AG, Giwa, CO, Lee, JC, Bowles, P, Gilmour, A, Allan, J, Rice, DA, Brady, F, Tsang, SCF, (1999), Future cathode materials for lithium rechargeable batteries, Journal of Power Sources 98 (80). Ritchie, AG (2000) Recent Developments and Future Prospects for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries, Journal of Power Sources, 96 (1-4) Ritchie, AG (2004) Recent developments and likely advances in lithium rechargeable batteries, Journal of Power Sources, 136 (286-289). Ritchie, AG (2001), Recent developments and future prospects for lithium rechargeable batteries, Journal of Power Sources 96 (1). Sharma, RA (1976), Equilibrium phases between lithium sulphide and iron sulphides, Journal of Electrochemical Society, 448 (123). Tanka, T (2000), New Development in Lithium ion Batteries, Batteries 2000; Markets and Technologies for Portable Electronic Devices, Paris. Thomas, JP, Qidwal, MA, Gozdz, AS, Plitz, I, Shelburne, JA, Matic, P, Keennon, MT, Grasmeyer, JM (2002), ‘ Design and performance of rechargeable plastic Li-ion batteries as power sources for unmanned air vehicles,’ in: Proceedings of the 40th Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, USA, June 2002, p. 500. Read More