History of Chinese Painting - Essay Example

Order 325459 Topic: Chinese arts. (Paintings) To compose the history of painting of a vast country like China is an arduous task. Paintings invariably reflect the social conditions and cultural traits of the era. The transition of the painting techniques from Primitive to Modern times is interesting and full of varied experiments. From the Neolithic Age about 6000 years ago till the modern time of Communism, paintings have gone thorough what one may roughly call the reformation and rehabilitation processes. In the website on History of Chinese Painting it is stated, “In its earliest stage, Chinese prehistoric paintings were closely related to other primitive crafts, such as pottery, bronze ware, carved jade and lacquer. The line patterns on unearthed pottery and bronze ware resemble ripples, fishing nets, teeth or frogs. The animal and human figures, succinct and vivid, are proofs to the innate sensitivity of the ancient artists and nature.” The early Chinese artists were fascinated by the beauty of Nature. They held the various agents of Nature like mountains, rivers etc. in reverence and awe. The proof for this can be found in the steep cliffs in Sichuan, Guizhou in Southwes China and Yunnan. More ancient engravings and paintings can be found in Altai, and Heihe. The paintings are related to the tough living conditions of the people in those hilly tracts. Scenes of sacrificial rites, production activities and so forth can be seen. In northern China, the themes of paintings were entirely different. They mostly relate to animal grazing, hunting, wars and dancing. Paper was invented much later and the artists used silk for their paintings. The earliest silk painting was excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb which relates to Warring States Period (476-221 BC). Buddhism came from India in the 1st century and one can see carvings on grottoes and temple buildings. The religious murals came to the fore. Chinese artists were exposed to vagaries of Nature and territorial aggrandizement of different dynasties and the unity of China as one country was put to severe test. Wars between the dynasties were the common feature during the third to sixth centuries. These developments set the Chinese artists thinking and varied themes emerged from their creative strokes. “Grotto murals, wall murals in tomb chambers, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquer paintings flourished in a period deemed very important to the development of traditional Chinese painting The Tang Dynasty (618-907) witnessed the prosperity of figure painting, where the most outstanding painters were Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang. Their paintings, depicting the life of noble women and court ladies, exerted an eternal influence on the development of shi nu hua (painting of beauties), which comprise an important branch of traditional Chinese painting today.”(History of….) The dynasties were competitive as for the encouragement given to paintings. Beginning in the Five Dynasties (907-960), each dynasty established an art academy and encouraged the talented painters from all across the country. The artists were the on the official payroll of the Kings. They were the academy members as well. They were allotted specific jobs like making portraits of emperors, aristocrats and nobles, highlighting their daily lives. Painting got lots of encouragement which contributed to its development. Next, the Song Dynasty (960-1127) established the Imperial art Academy. Landscape painting reached the zenith during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). The Four Great Painters, -- Huang Gongwang, Ni Zan, Wei Zhen and Wang Meng – belonged to this period. The influence of their works can be seen in the paintings during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).Power-politics strongly affected the attitude and creativity of the painters. “The Ming Dynasty saw the rise of the Wumen Painting School, which emerged in Suzhou on the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Keen to carry on the traditions of Chinese painting, the four Wumen masters blazed new trails and developed their own unique styles. When the Manchus came to power in 1644, the then-best painters showed their resentment to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) court in many ways.”(History of….) So strong was the resentment of the four monk masters, - Zhu Da, Shi Tao, Kun Can and Hong Ren – they shaved their heads. They were not at all inclined to serve the new dynasty. Their sadness and helplessness reflected in their paintings; they painted tranquil nature scenes and traditional art. ‘Yangzhou, which faces Suzhou across the Yangtze River, was home to the Eight Eccentrics’ - the eight painters all with strong characters, proud and aloof, who refused to follow orthodoxy. With this development, it can be said that a new era in the Chinese paintings had begun. The strokes of their brush ushered new creativity and these painters were forward looking with broadened horizons. With more closeness to nature, flower-and-bird paints followed. More was in store for the painting world of Chinese Art. Shanghai came into prominence. With the end of Qing Dynasty and the ushering of the Republic of China, Shanghai Painting School was established. This became the hub of the painting related activities and the painters in large numbers met at this place to exchange notes. This was the transitional period in the history of Chinese Painting. Painting achieved a big leap from a classical form to a modern one. The spirit of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou continued to prevail strongly. In the website on Chinese Art, it is recorded that “During the fifth-century CE, in his book "The Record of the Classification of Old Painters", the art expert Xie-He laid down his famous "Six Points to Consider when Judging a Painting." These are: (1) "Spirit Resonance", or overall energy of a work. (2) "Bone Method” or brushwork. (3) "Correspondence to the Object” or how the shape and line of the object is represented. (4) "Suitability to Type", meaning the thickness and tone of the colour scheme. (5) "Division and Planning", meaning the artists composition, perspective and use of space. (6) "Transmission by Copying", means how well the artist copies the object or historical masterpiece.” The portals of Chinese Paintings were opened to the Western art. This was the outcome of The May 4th Movement of 1919 also known as the New Culture Movement. Bright merger possibilities of the Chinese Art and Western Art Styles, led the Chinese artist like XU Beihong to new horizons. Western classicism, romanticism and impressionism claimed its place in the Chinese paintings and perfect blending could be seen in the paintings of this period. Some of the masters of this genre of paintings were Qui Baishi, Huang Binhong and Zhang Daqian. Though oil painting, a western art, was introduced into China in the 17th century, it had to wait for 3 centuries to gain mass popularity. In the 1980s, oil painting reached great heights and became very popular with the painters as well as the buyers. The impact of materialism, commercialization of the products on a global scale, opened new vistas for the popular folk paintings. The business thrived with great export possibilities as the Chinese New Year pictures, wall hangings to ward off evil spirits and disasters were great marketable commodities. The wall hanging ‘tak shak dak” (good luck symbol) was much sought after. The commercial angle gave opportunities for the artists/painters to produce many new designs and products. Such orders were in many thousands and this was a great source of gainful employment, viewed from the economic angle. To provide further boost, new technological inventions like block printing, folk painting became very popular. Song dynasty saw the beginning of such art forms and during the Qing dynasty, it reached the highest levels. Woodcuts of the 1980s became famous for their style, artistic form and theme. When the communists took over the reigns of power in 1949, they encouraged art in their own style. But it was encouragement within the prison environment as if! Graphic art useful for political propaganda was encouraged. The Western influence was totally curbed. Even remaining within the restrictions imposed by the communist government, two painters, Li Ko-jan and Cheng Shih-fa, have produced works of considerable individuality. Some Chinese artists, who worked outside China, like Tseng Yu-ho in Hawaii, C. C. Wang in New York, and Chao Wu-chi in France, continued to produce abstract works on calligraphy that showed definite Western influence. Religious beliefs played an important role and it has helped to know a great deal about the early Chinese paintings. The burial sites from the late Iron Age onwards, especially the tomb paintings that were done on silk banners, lacquered objects and walls bear the testimony to the skill of the painters. These paintings, it was believed protected the dead and helped the souls on their onward journey to paradise. During the Han Dynasty, such paintings reached the zenith. “According to painting techniques, Chinese painting can be divided into two styles: xieyi style and gongbi style. Xieyi, or freehand, is marked by exaggerated forms and freehand brushwork. Gongbi, or meticulous, is characterized by close attention to detail and fine brushwork. Freehand painting generalizes shapes and displays rich brushwork and ink techniques.”(History of….) Commercialization and globalization and the lure of international markets for the gift items have influenced the Chinese paintings as well. The traditional Chinese paintings like hanging roll, fan surface, album of paintings and long horizontal rolls are very popular. The horizontal or vertical rolls are usually mounted and hung on a wall. Album is convenient for storage. The round fans of bamboo strips with other decorative pieces pasted on the frame are ever in demand. The popular saying goes—the artist/painter reaches that area where the sun can not reach. A painter has the skill to translate any idea that flashes within him, into a painting. First the imagination and then the strokes of his brush make an ideal painting. Traditional Chinese paintings are classified as figure paintings, flower-and-bird paintings and landscapes. Scenic beauty, mountain and rivers have fascinated the Chinese painters. The painter’s ideas and sentiments are expressed through inscriptions and seal impressions. Besides the facts mentioned, they add to the beauty of the painting. Comparison between Chinese and Indian painting: The comparison between the above two traditions of paintings is an extremely difficult task. It is as good as measuring the total quantity of water in two oceans with pitchers. Just like the Chinese, the painting in India is an old tradition; its history goes back as far as the history of the country. The Chinese paintings are related to the encouragement they got from various dynasties. The position is somewhat different in India. The Chinese and Iranian art had inspired the Indian artists. Indian painting is well-known for its murals and miniatures. The important art movements are Mughal, Mysore, Pahari, Tanjore, Madhubani, Bengal School and Samikshavad, the first in modern India. Miniature painting relates to the literature of important religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Just like the advent of Communism influenced and interfered in the Chinese Painting concepts, the advent of democracy, economic and social problems, provided new subject for the Indian painters and many of the modern paintings are the outcome of the newly awakened spirit of India. The subject changed from mystery and Hindu gods to socio-economic themes. This is happening in China as well, subject to restrictions imposed on the painters in the light of Communist ideology. They are unable to express their real feelings and the reality prevailing in the grassroots level of the society. M. C. Joshi and R. Banerjee write, “An important linkage between the Ancient art of India and China is provided by Buddhist narrative episodes especially the Jataka tales detailing the previous lives of Buddha. Each story ends with a moral illustrating the Buddhist ideal of Dharma and self sacrifice in diverse forms.” The Jataka stories turned out to be the most liked subject with the artists in the countries that were impacted by Buddhism, like India, China, Nepal, Tibet and Ceylon. The common wave-length between the painters of India and China in this area was religion-Buddhism. Indian Paintings has made great strides, since the olden days when the painters did art on palm leaves and many textures and illustrations were created on it. The arrival of glass painting in India goes to the credit of a Chinese artist in the beginning of the 18th century. He brought that art from Europe, several Indian painters were trained in the art and such paintings were exported to Europe. The strong trade relations between China and India also helped this form of art in India. Such paintings were noted for their excellence, stunning clarity and use of rich colors. These paintings require lots of skill as the painting is done from reverse side of the mirror. Indian Component of Dunhuang Art relates to the holistic domain. Comparison relating to contribution to the development of art between two countries is a tough assignment. Art belongs to mankind as a whole. Who influences who, is a matter of conjectures and contentions. This is the position of Dunhuang art. Chinese contribution to the development of Buddhist art is recognizable. The syllabus of Dunhuang art is Indian. Such great art could not have developed at Dunhuang without the external expert advice and guidance. Those who taught this art to the Chinese artists must be conversant with Indian art and culture. In the website Introduction, it is stated that, “Before discussing the influence, we must first acknowledge that the greatest Indian contribution to Chinese painting is the development of art and skill of "human figures" (renwu), one of the four disciplines of Chinese painting. But, so vitally important a genre in Chinese painting was not well developed before the introduction of Buddhist art to China.” Look at the characteristics of Buddha images/dunhuang that are distinctly Indian— Long ears, sharp nose, curly hair, seating pose of the sage, and the tropical costumes. Dhoti and garland were also Indian. Buddha at the centre surrounded by disciples and all other related Indian infrastructure remained the same. Human figures thus turned out to be a great discipline in Chinese art. Another major contribution to the Chinese art from India is the “three-dimensional technique” in colouring. In the Dunhuang murals one will find the confluence of both Indian and Chinese techniques to produce those magnificent paintings. Western scholars are convinced about the Indian influence on the Chinese art, especially the Chinese sculptors from the sixth century onwards. Conclusion: Comparison between the art forms of two countries, especially from the point of view of—who contributed to whose growth, is the toughest of jobs in the absence of well-researched data. In case of China and Indian Arts, it seems, they are the alternative beats of the same heart! One has enriched the art form of the other! ***************** Reference List Chinese Art: History, Types, Painting, Ceramics, CalligraphyChinese Art: Available at - Accessed on October 10, 2009 History of Chinese Painting An short history of Chinese painting. ... Available at - Accessed October 10, 2009 Introduction...From Dunhuang he went to Changan and Luoyang in interior China to end his life as.... Available at -Accessed on October 10, 2009 Joshi, M.C. & Banerjee, R: Some Aspects of Jataka Paintings in Indian And Chinese Available at - Accessed on October 10, 2009 325459 Chinese Arts (Martial Arts) Introduction: The Roots of Martial Arts: Nothing ‘martial’ as such about the martial arts! It is the art of self-defense. During the ancient times, its practical use was to defend oneself from highway robbers and animals. Over the period the art was more and more refined and new techniques were added. In keeping with the ancient traditions, this art developed in relationship to health, philosophy and religion and became the component of living of monks. It goes to the credit of China, that martial art became very popular there, as they made conscious efforts to develop it on a mass scale. Most of the countries have their own traditions and martial arts stands influenced as per indigenous requirements. Survival instinct is strong with human beings. An individual of ordinary strength and courage, in times of crisis, is known to exhibit extraordinary physical prowess. From where does this extra energy come from? Chinese martial arts are linked to, apart from the physical strength, the will power of an individual. In his article Liang Shouyu writes, “Correct Chinese Wushu training improves physical ability, health, and willpower; it gives an individual an excellent method of exercise, a personal art form, a competitive sport, and a basis for self-defense and sparring. Total martial training includes Ti (kicking), Da (punching), Shuai (throwing), Na (controlling), Gi (hitting), Ci (thrusting), etc.” The basic forms for all types of martial arts are the same. These are also known as sequences. They may not follow in a particular order, and one employs them as per the demands of the situation. The defense strategies, retreat, offence, immobility and mobility, speed and slowness, hard and soft postures, emptiness and fullness, the use of weapons are related to each and every style of Chinese Martial Arts. Apart from the physical strength, Chinese Martial Arts, in any category, is a great mind-game. The time at one’s disposal to win or face defeat, is less than a second. The most popular method is “Kung-fu.” It is also known by the name “Wu-Yi”, “Ghoshu” and finally the term accepted by the present Chinese government, “Wushu.” The expressions and finer points related to Chinese philosophy are showing in the training methods, as explained in the following poem: Shouyu writes, "The Way is so small and simple, but the meaning is timeless and profound. The Way has an entrance; it also has a Yin and a Yang. The entrance constantly opens and closes, Yin and Yang weaken and flourish. When the Way is battle, be full-spirited within, But outwardly show calm and be relaxed; Appear to be as gentle as a fair lady, but react like a vicious tiger. Though hidden within, the spirit of the body moves; Though obscured like a setting sun, the spirit moves like an unleashed rabbit, Catching the body and outrunning shadow like a mirage. Back and forth in one breath. The spirit cannot be retained in form. And, though ever moving, it cannot be heard." The poem contains the success formula. Right through the rule of several dynasties in China, this type of martial training (as elucidated in the poem) has stood the test of time. Promotions of warriors were done through open competitions during the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.) During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) this martial arts spread to Korea, Japan, Tibet etc. Along with this, other form of martial arts also became popular. “Karate” is the version of Southern Chinese boxing form. Judo’s origin is in Chinese wrestling and Qinna, the precursor of Jiu-jitsu. Many peculiarities are associated with Wushu. Particularly the training method appeals to one’s emotions and the internal-self. This is the strange aspect associated with Wushu, and that perhaps is the reason, why it has become so popular all over the world. It has proved to be a great tool of camaraderie between the sports lovers in many countries of the world. Martial artists share their knowledge and compare techniques. Modern knowledge of physiology and the health science has polished this martial art further. Wushu makes liberal use of advances in sports medicine, nutrition etc. This is a great demanding sport and one needs to maintain one’s body and mind in peak form. General classification aside, modern Wushu competition groups performances into six categories for purposes of judging: Shouyu enumerates them thus: “Empty Hand Forms Weapon Forms Choreographed Routines. (Involving 2 or more people) Group Practice Sparring Competition Qigong (Chi Kung) Power Demonstrations” In weapons competition more than 400 different types of ancient Chinese weapons and many usages of each, makes this category mind-boggling. Importantly only 18 weapons are used in competitions. As for physical techniques, there are four techniques that apply to all styles of martial arts: they are kicking, striking, rowing and controlling. These are expected to be cultivated early in the training and improved upon through out the career. The eight qualities are watched carefully and judged during the competition.They are: Hands, Eyes, Body Technique, Steps, Spirit, Breath, Strength and Ability. Ability has a comprehensive meaning. It is used in the general sense and involves all the positive qualities related to the body and the mind. Ability is described through 12 connotations. Shouyu lists them out: “1. In motion, moves like a thundering wave, 2. When still, be like a mountain, 3. Rising up, be like a monkey, 4. Land swiftly and lightly like a bird, 5. Be steady like a rooster on one leg, 6. Ones stance is as firm as a pine tree, yet expresses motion, 7. Spin swiftly and circularly like a wheel, 8. Bend and flex like a bow, 9. Waft gracefully like a leaf in the wind, 10. Sink like a heavy piece of metal, 11. Prey like a watchful, gliding eagle, 12. Accelerate like a gusty wind.” With the passage of time, and in keeping with the modern trends, martial arts practitioners have diversified goals. One does not fight to become a champion only. Wushu ushers great health benefits and the medical practitioners prescribe this as a form of physical exercise. Male, female and children can practice this martial art. As said earlier, Wushu is a great mind game. Fight amongst the two physically unequal can produce unexpected results. If the opponent is strong and maintains an overpowering stature, his opponent can pretend to be weak and the stronger will drop the guard, and become less concentrated with overconfidence. The weak one will suddenly attack him and that could be physically and emotionally devastating for the strong man. It is all about what techniques you know and how you employ them at the most unexpected moment by the opponent. What you to do to your opponent are no doubt important; but how you do, what you do, is more important. With the extensive popularity of the Martial Arts, certified courses are available at the Wushu Training Center at Beijing. Some such courses are: ChangQuan, TaiJiQuan, and SanDa. Martial Arts techniques also form part of the Chinese military Strategy. If one has to understand the Chinese Martial arts in the correct perspective, one need to possess traditional Chinese theories of natural science, legends, customs and pictographic symbols and most importantly religion. The essentials have been intelligently incorporated in the exercises. These arts have taken the form of the knowledge to be acquired at different levels. For the Chinese leadership and people one common factor of mutual interest is their application in various facets of life. Name an area of Chinese life, one will find the influence of martial arts there. Music, dance and acrobatics are combined to produce beautiful movements of martial arts. Extensive use is found in Chinese theater. During ceremonial occasions, lion and dragon dances are very popular and they are performed on the lines of martial arts training. Martial arts in modern China: Online paper The Independent reports, “The ancient martial art developed by an Indian monk is now compulsory in central Chinese schools. And both pupils and parents love the idea. The success of popular martial arts films means everybody is kung fu fighting in China these days, but youngsters will soon be adopting a fighting stance in the classroom rather than outside in the playground. Kung fu has now been made compulsory in secondary schools in central China.” In reality, martial arts have become a way of life in China. Parents like it because it is a good exercise for children and a great fitness formula. Children like it for the sheer adventure of it. Marshal arts exhibition by some movie heroes have contributed to its popularity further. The importance of religion and spirituality in life is felt all over the world now, and the spiritual dimension of the martial arts, appeals to the people. The long sessions of mediation to purify the mind, contribute to physical and mental health. The report further said, “The Shaolin Temple, built in 495, is widely regarded as the birthplace of Shaolin kung fu, which owes its existence to an Indian monk, Bodhi Dharma, who began to preach Zen Buddhism in the temple and started its martial arts tradition. The Shaolin style was expanded over the years from 72 basic fighting movements to 170 moves, divided into five styles named after the animal the movements were supposed to resemble or represent the Tiger, Leopard, Snake, Dragon and Crane.” Ethnic Chinese children from other countries have also joined the race to get trained in martial arts. This along, they take training in Chinese culture and kung fu is inseparable part of it. If one studies the religious histories, one notices that the religious austerities go along with some methodical physical discipline as well. Unless one has a healthy physical body, proper approach to spiritual austerities is not feasible. Spirituality in India is closely linked to Yoga exercises. Kundagawa observes, “Chinese martial arts were first mentioned in literature dating back to the Chou Dynasty from 1122-255BC and but the Shaolin Kung Fu history begins with the building of the Shaolin Monastery in 495AD. This monastery which was built on the Sung Mountain in the Honen Province housed up to 2000 monks at one time and is noted as Chinas most famous monastery. Due to the fact that Shaolin was taught and passed down orally much of the story of its beginnings are a mixture of historical fact intermingled with legend.” In the 6th century AD a monk, Tamo left India and reached the Shaolin Monastery where he taught Zen mediation. Monks found it difficult to cope up with the tough regime of zen meditation discipline. Tamo created a number of exercises to protect their health and augment stamina. These exercises were comparable to Indian yoga and believed to have paved way for the martial art of Shaolin Kung Fu. Learning the martial arts was the necessity of the time as well for the monks. During their pilgrimages, monks were often robbed of their religious treasures and personal belongings by the bandits of the time. With their physical energy and spiritual energy they were able to meet such challenges with confidence for self-protection. Spirituality and self-defense worked together well. It is popularly believed that Indian martial arts influenced the fighting styles of China and this process happened when Buddhism spread to China. However no concrete evidence is available to this assertion. Many similarities between the Indian and Chinese martial arts have been listed. Who influenced whom, is the question to be decided. Cultural exchange did play an important role. The legend of Buddhist monk Bodhidharma lends credence to this theory, which states that the renowned Chinese martial art was founded by him. Art lovers all over the world know about the Nataraja pose. This is the finest example how dance and the movements of the martial arts combine together to create a great effect. The “Nata” moments have been incorporated into various martial arts. How it came about is a matter of guesswork. The contacts between India and China were in existence before the advent of Buddhism to China. Indian monks were active in China even before the arrival of Bodhidharma. The Indian Sage Patanjali, makes a mention about the single-minded meditation on points located within one’s body. This was later used in martial arts. The mention of mudra movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. Lots of similarity exists between the postures of bong sau and bong gurk in one hand and one foot position, with that of the posture of Nataraja. The Chinese school of martial arts concurs with the South Indian School about the principle of 108 pressure points. Conclusion: The materialistic civilization, deeply impacted by industrialization and internet revolution has created lots of stress in the day to day life of human beings. Diseases of the mind like stress and tension are taking their toll. It is necessary for an individual to budge one’s time according to the need of his health. All the amenities of life are meaningless, unless one enjoys perfect physical and mental health. The ancient masters of martial arts, both from China and India knew this fact well. The newfound enthusiasm amongst the younger generation to go for martial arts is a welcome sign. ************* References List: Independent: (updated: 2006-08-11) Martial arts in modern China Available at:-Accessed on October 10, 2009 Kundagawa, Yoshi. The Origin of the Earliest Extant Manual on Shaolin Kung Fu (Online) Available at :< ezinearticles.com/? The-Origin-of-the-Earliest-Extant...on...> -Accessed on October 10, 2009 Liang Shouyu. Translated by Chen, Bill and Sigman, Mike. AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE MARTIAL ARTS (Online) Available at: – Accessed on October 10, 2009 Read More