The Passing of the Plains Indians - Essay Example

The Passing of the Plains Indians The last half of the 19th century saw the Plains Indians reduced from a dwindling population of tribes that had been geographically isolated to a civilization on the verge of physical and cultural extinction. The early 1800s had taken its toll on the Native population as the invasion of the Europeans brought technology and a motivation that the Indians were unable to compete with. Disease had thinned their ranks and the exploding immigrant population was pushing westward in search of new land and natural resources. The technology of weapons, industrial machinery, the railroad, concepts of private property, and the capitalist economic system all served to further isolate the Indians both geographically and economically. By 1864, the Native territory had been shrunk and was on a path to the coming reservation system that would be the death knell for the Indian culture and way of life. The violence that began at Sand Creek in 1864 culminated in the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre and signaled the passing of the great North American Indian civilizations. While the violence against the Native Americans did not begin at Sand Creek in 1864, it was the most egregious violation of human rights that had been perpetrated on the Indians to that date. In the early morning hours of November 29, 1864 US soldiers from the Colorado Territory militia and cavalry brutally attacked a Cheyenne settlement that was occupied by some 700 unarmed inhabitants, mostly women and children (Andrist 91). The Indians had been isolated on a small tract of land to make their territory available to the Gold Rush. Estimates vary on the number killed, but may have been as high as 500 fatalities. This was a peaceful village that had been led to believe that they were under the protection of the Army. In the summer of 1864 John Evans, Governor of Colorado, issued a proclamation of safety for all Plains Indians that demonstrated their peaceful intentions by placing themselves in the custody of the Army (Keenan 104). The Indians were told to fly an American flag as a show of their loyalty as a means of protection. However, the American flag and a subsequent white flag both went unheeded as the troops attacked. The commanding officer at Sand Creek, Colonel Chivington, ordered the attack and was personally responsible for the degree of brutality exhibited. Prior to the onslaught Colonel Chivington "believed it to be right and honorable to use any means under Gods heaven to kill Indians that would kill women and children and damn any man that was in sympathy with Indians" (Andrist 89). The volunteers would have been armed with small personal weapons, and it has been reported that canons were also used in the massacre. Chivington had no battle plan and the scene erupted quickly into total chaos, with Indians attempting to escape and take cover and the soldiers firing wildly. In fact, many of the casualties suffered by the soldiers were attributed to friendly fire when they were caught in the ill planned crossfire. In contrast to the spontaneous eruption of violence at Sand Creek was the heavily armed and intricately planned assault on Little Bighorn in 1876. Colonel George Armstrong Custer was to join General Hancock for an attack on some Cheyenne and Sioux that were camped on the Pawnee River. The operation involved more than 1400 men "six companies of infantry, a battery of light artillery, and a train whose freight included pontoons for bridging the ankle-deep rivers of Western Kansas" (Andrist 138). However, poor planning on the part of Custer resulted in a sound defeat for the US cavalry. Custer, in a grandstand move to take what be believed was an easy victory, turned down repeated suggestions of more men and weapons. General Terry had offered Custer a battery of Gatling guns and suggested that Gibbons Cavalry accompany and reinforce Custers men. However, Custer discounted the fighting ability of the Indians and General Terry reported, "he would prefer his own regiment alone. He expressed the utmost confidence that he had all the force that he could need" (as cited in Spartacus). Custers over-confidence would lead to the death of 220 men in his fighting force. Custer, though well armed, made several tactical errors. Because he did not wish to share the credit for a victory, he had driven his men hard to arrive at the battlefield before any reinforcements could arrive. When Custer got within reach of Little Bighorn, one of his scouts reported that the Indians had amassed the largest fighting force he had ever seen. (Fox 233). Other scouts confirmed the findings, but Custer discounted the intelligence of the scouts and labeled them cowards. Custer then makes a battlefield mistake that has been endlessly debated as an example of what not to do in battle. While attempting to outflank the Indian forces, he divides his battalions. This doomed his defensive ability as he had already taken a weak defensive position in the hills. Custer turned a difficult and outnumbered situation into a hopelessly defensive handicap. Reinforcements arrived too late to be of any help and Custers units suffered nearly total annihilation. The Indian wars wore on through the next decade and culminated in what many believe to be the last great stand by the Indians, the battle at Wounded Knee. On December 15, 1890 Sitting Bull and eight of his warriors were murdered when agents who had gone there to arrest him claimed that the chief resisted. Fear and panic ran through the Lakota people as there were rumors of them being deported to the Oklahoma territory. Soldiers attempted to disarm the Indians and the Indians began their legendary Ghost Dance. The Army misunderstood the implications of the dance and assumed that hostilities were imminent. It is believed that an Indian weapon accidentally fired as it was being confiscated, which led to the eruption of soldiers firing small arms as well as the legendary Hotchkiss canon which was "capable of firing two pound explosive shells at a rate of fifty per minute" (The Wounded Knee Massacre). This would lead to the massacre of the ill-equipped and greatly outnumbered Indian force. "The majority of the massacre fatalities occurred during the initial ten to twenty minutes of the incident, but the firing lasted for several hours" (The Wounded Knee Massacre). The freezing temperatures and exposure to the cold continued to take the lives of the few that lived through the gunfire. In the end, 29 soldiers and over 300 Indians (men, women, and children) were killed in the skirmish. "When it was over, the Indian wars on the plains were ended, and with them the long struggle of all American Indians" (Andrist 1). The American Indian would be herded into the reservations and continue the journey towards the long death. In conclusion, the American Indian faced overwhelming odds when they were confronted by the European invaders some five centauries ago. A different lifestyle and culture had not prepared them for the European traditions of competition and capitalism. In addition, they were outgunned by the Europeans superior technology and ability to build weapons. Those that did not die from disease, displacement, or starvation faced increasing hardships as the US government embarked on the Indian wars in 1864. By 1890, the Indian civilization and culture had all but been erased. The once great civilizations of the Indian tribes had been isolated to the reservations to face the ongoing struggle and the march of the long death. Works Cited Andrist, Ralph K. The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Fox, R. A. Archaeology, History, and Custers last battle: The Little Bighorn reexamined. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993. Keenan, Jerry. Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492-1890. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997. Spartacus Educational. 2006. Retrieved August 23, 2006, from http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WWterry.htm The Wounded Knee Massacre. 1998. Bowling Green State University. 22 Oct. 2008 . Read More