Social Problems of Delinquency and Crime - Assignment Example

Families, Delinquency, and Crimes 1) The effects of parental work and neighborhood conditions on family processes Various cultural trends, social, commercial, legal, political and religious institutions and movements affect the family, as well as being conversely affected by the family itself too. But general trends in work and in particular the work placement of the parents, and the conditions of the wider society, the neighborhood in particular, have a significant impact on family processes. Factors such as the need for more family members to work nowadays, non-standard working hours, and working longer hours etc. all have the negative consequence of reducing quality time available for the family to bond together and socialize. The impact of working mothers on childcare and development of young children is even greater. With less time to spend together as a family, the development of children is then influenced to an even greater extent on external factors outside the family circle. The school environment, the social interaction with other children in the neighborhood, participation in local clubs and societies etc. take on a bigger role in shaping the social character of the child and extent, if any, of an inclination towards antisocial behaviors. The importance of greater time for social interaction of parents with their children in the context of the relationship between family variables and child behavior is discussed in Family Process journal1, wherein it states that “although a diversity of factors may be associated with the development and maintenance of conduct/oppositional disorders in children, of primary importance are the moment-to-moment interactions that the child has with his or her primary caregivers.” It is an unfortunate present day reality that in many families, parents do not spend sufficient time with their children as they used to, usually due to work commitments. So it is no surprise that they acquire habits, attitudes and behaviors from elsewhere that prove detrimental to their future lives. As far as the effects of the neighborhood is concerned on family processes, especially in the absence of sufficient parental involvement in the lives of their children, it too can be a significant factor. Emily and Daniel2 conducted a longitudinal study from toddlerhood to school entry of the impact of neighborhood disadvantage on early child overt behavior problems in a low-income, urban sample of 281 African American and European American boys. Neighborhood effects on boys' behavior emerged, albeit only at age 6 at the extreme of neighborhood disadvantage. Findings suggested that boys in underclass neighborhoods are at risk for overt behavior problems as they make the transition to elementary school. 2) Linking childhood delinquency and adult crime Labeling theory can also provide insight into why as a consequence of the child’s interaction with elders like parents, teachers, social workers, the police, lawyers etc. who are able to impose definitions of conventional morality on minors, the child then comes to accept himself as a delinquent thus perpetuating his criminal behavior. Once the child is labeled a delinquent, even following a wrong conviction, he becomes untrustworthy in the eyes of the majority of people around him and even stigmatized. In such a case, the primary act of deviance, as named by Edwin Lemert (1972), then results in a greater propensity to commit further acts of secondary deviance because the child himself accepts the label. Misinformed or premature labeling can thus make the child relapse into continued criminal behavior that only widens the estrangement from the orthodox social conventions instead of helping to correct the child. The mistake may not be deliberate but nonetheless can prove decisive in defining the child’s behavior into adulthood. In reality, issues of social standing, poverty, unemployment, gender identity, family situation, racism, deviant subcultures or cults, mass media influence, deprivation of schooling etc. can all help to explain the background for the delinquency. In short, the differences in personal attitudes, socialization, and alternative opportunities are what influence the degree to which the child engages in behavior labeled as delinquency. For example, a deprived background, increased interaction with other delinquents leading to peer group pressure, and lack of education or work opportunities. A report published in 20023 on behalf of the US Department of Justice, showed findings that “strongly support the relationship between child abuse and neglect and delinquency, adult criminality, and violent criminal behavior.” In the sample used, it found that abused and neglected children are 4.8 times more likely to be arrested as juvenile; 2 times more likely to be arrested as an adult, and 3.1 times more likely to be arrested for a violent crime as compared to matched controls of the same age, gender, ethnicity, and approximate socio-economic status. It is clear from this report that victims of abuse and neglect experience negative consequences in terms of their involvement with the criminal justice system. Interestingly, this landmark report not only confirms previous research, such as by Widom about the relationship of physical abuse and neglect to later violent criminal behavior, but also confirmed the vicious ‘cycle of violence’ from child abuse to violent criminal behavior, thus linking delinquency with adult criminality in the process. 3) Marital violence: antisocial behavior learned in childhood Marital violence occurs when one partner in a marital relationship inflicts injury on the other. We shall consider, as is usually the case, that the perpetrator is the husband in a monogamous marital relationship and that the violence directed towards the wife takes on the form of either an ongoing affliction of physical injury causing actual bodily harm, or a regular emotional abuse that greatly demoralizes the wife emotionally and mentally so as to make her unstable. This antisocial behavior is perhaps the most devastating and common type of oppression that takes place within the family institution. The physical or emotional injuries of the victimized partner aside, it also tends to deeply affect the relationship in a very negative way and have long lasting effects and repercussions. The relationship ceases to function harmoniously, so is not necessarily a positive outcome for the husband either as perhaps he would hope to achieve. But the cause that compels him to take or resort to this form of behavior is what is under discussion here, and which we intend to examine, rather than the reason that may be given by the husband to justify his behavior in terms of what the wife did or did not do or pointing out her faults. In other words, the underlying factors that form the character of the husband making him habitually choose to use violence as a natural response. It may be argued that the response is acquired rather than learned, and not necessarily early in life but even later in life. Also, that the instilled behavior, whether acquired or learned, originally had a positive purpose for rectifying the wife’s behavior that has spilled over the boundary from what is acceptable and tolerated to what is socially unacceptable and damaging. The traditional cultural acceptability of a limited application of marital ‘violence’ is expressed in this old ditty: A woman, a horse and a hickory tree; The more you beat ‘em the better they be. However, the experiences of one’s childhood to a greater or lesser extent no doubt has an influence on the formation of character of the individual and the way he deals with specific situations. In particular, the learning of certain antisocial behaviors that are not the norm in the society the child is brought up in may have significantly shaped his violent nature. Moreover, these early signs of antisocial behavior could be the result of observing the father’s behavior and following in his footsteps, or more seriously due to child abuse and neglect. According to a 1996 Justice Department report, ‘Victim Costs and Consequences: A New Look’,4 child abuse and domestic violence account for about one-third of the total annual costs of crime. This shows the significance of both social problems. Witnessing marital violence between ones’ own parents as a child as mentioned above is often the first stage in developing similar antisocial behavioral traits as suggested in social learning theory. In studying the impact of marital violence on preschoolers, a child trauma research project5 found “that exposure to violence and maternal life stress are each predictive of child behavior problems”. The link between a related phenomenon of ‘dating violence’ and exposure to marital violence was researched by Erika and Laura (2004)6. Their report suggests “children exposed to marital violence in childhood are at risk for engaging in dating violence as adolescents or young adults. This form of violence could easily be a precursor to later marital violence because it entrenches gender role beliefs in early adulthood and reinforces the cycle of violence. 4) Child maltreatment: inept parenting or expression of a general antisocial orientation There may be a multitude of causes of child maltreatment amongst different cases, be it physical, sexual, emotional or psychological abuse or simply personal neglect, but what can certainly be identified are some typical factors or attributes that tend to be associated with maltreatment. In families where these factors or attributes preponderate, there is a greater chance that maltreatment occurs, although it may not necessarily be so in all cases. These factors may show a positive correlation with the existence of maltreatment in the form of child abuse or neglect, but the number and severity of these factors would need to be considered and the particular circumstances of each case. For example, poverty may be a prime factor in certain cases, but not all poverty stricken families maltreat their children. On the other hand, inept parenting and a general antisocial orientation would also show a positive correlation, but it would also be true to say that those families in which the parents are proven incompetent and an antisocial environment prevails, do usually have problems of child maltreatment. Maltreatment in the form of neglect is perhaps more common7 if there are issues of poverty and unemployment in the family due to the strains it causes in the family relationships and the limited means of the parents to sufficiently provide for their children. Inept parents usually have a low self-esteem, and suffer from anxiety and depression. Their own background may have been difficult as “individuals with poor parental role models or those who did not have their own needs met may find it very difficult to meet the needs of their children… While the estimated number varies, child maltreatment literature commonly supports the finding that some maltreating parents or caregivers were victims of abuse and neglect themselves as children”8. It must be stressed that neither all abused parents abuse their own children, nor do all abused children perpetuate the cycle of abuse when they themselves later have children. There are also those who have not been abused who later do abuse their children. In the latter case, they have been influenced by factors other than their parents. Substance abuse by parents is another factor because it not only creates an antisocial home atmosphere; it “can interfere with a parent’s mental functioning, judgment, inhibitions, and protective capacity. Parents significantly affected by the use of drugs and alcohol may neglect the needs of their children, spend money on drugs instead of household expenses, or get involved in criminal activities that jeopardize their children’s health or safety.”9 However, it has been shown that “substance abuse and child maltreatment co-occur with other problems, including mental illness, HIV/AIDS or other health problems, domestic violence, poverty, and prior child maltreatment”.10 Another common factor is lack of or inaccurate knowledge about child development causing unrealistic expectations, and negative attitudes about child behavior resulting in harsh punishment. Some parents just do not know how to handle misbehavior in children and their natural response is to lash out. In this scenario, the younger children are perhaps more vulnerable and the problem would be particularly acute if the child (at any age) suffers from attention deficit disorder for instance or other behavioral or emotional problem. If this becomes a habit or is done in inappropriate circumstances, it can inadvertently lead to an escalation of this problem and eventually child abuse. This form of ineptness of parents can be overcome through the provision of parent education so as to improve their childcare knowledge and age-specific expectations as well as psychotherapy to deal with their own personal emotional and mental difficulties, especially relating to their own unresolved internal conflicts and childhood pain. Greater support from relatives and friends, especially at difficult times of trauma, crisis or death would also help prevent buried feelings being expressed through child maltreatment by providing the necessary emotional support. In this way, other important elders in an extended family or other caregivers who may compensate for the ineptness of the parents. Also, if the parents are concerned, caring and competent, and the family bond is strong and emotionally supportive, any external factors would have a weaker influence than if this was not the case. So, the environmental factors that forge an antisocial orientation would normally be the cause of child maltreatment more so if the families are broken or are single-parent families for instance, where there is an existing problem between the parents of marital conflict or violence, or there is an otherwise stressful period in life. These environmental factors could include poverty, unemployment, media influences and neighborhood disadvantage, especially if it is a violent neighborhood. 5) Course conclusions and observations This sociological study is an overview of specific issues that combine family processes with the social problems of delinquency and crime, for example child maltreatment, and considered links between this initial misfortune early in life and later problems of delinquency, crime and marital violence. Also, whether blame for the failure lies with the parents or is a more general social phenomena outside the family circle. Present day work demands on parents is largely responsible for less time being spent parenting. This opens the door to the external influences, which may be negative for the child, especially if living in a disadvantaged neighborhood. On the other hand, if the parents are in difficult circumstances, stricken by poverty or unemployment for instance, or exhibit marital violence, this too impacts negatively on the child. It can cause behavioral problems in them and in extreme cases, the onset of learning more severe antisocial behaviors. After all, a great deal of social learning takes place in the formative years. Child maltreatment in the form of neglect, even if done unintentionally due to the ineptness of the parents or other uncontrollable circumstances, and worse, actual child abuse, whether mental, emotional, sexual or physical, has been shown to significantly affect the child detrimentally. It establishes antisocial perspectives and behaviors, and increases his or her propensity to commit violent acts as a delinquent and then later as an adult. Labelling theory may help to explain the continuation of delinquency leading later in life to adult crime after the primary act of deviance was committed, but it is an examination of the individual’s background in terms of the formation of personal attitudes, circles of socialization, and education and work opportunities that helps to explain in depth why the lapse into delinquency arose in the first place. This study leads to the conclusion that there can be a vicious ‘cycle of violence’ that can entrap many individuals into crime. Thus we have looked at family processes that engender the social problem of marital violence in particular and crime in general. By ‘cycle of violence’ is meant not repeating instances of violence in a particular relationship, but a cycle that perpetuates over time through different stages of life in changing relationships. That is, the links between exposures as a child to witnessing marital violence in the home for instance, child maltreatment, particularly in the form of child neglect and abuse, childhood delinquency and adult crime. Moreover, that the various social problems mentioned all relate to one another and are most likely found to exist together. Read More