Human Development Across the Lifespan: Gender Identity Issues in Adolescence - Essay Example

Human Development Across the Lifespan: Gender Identity Issues in Adolescence and Number Term and Year At birth, a child is socially defined based on its anatomical sex, and accordingly his or her gender identity is formed over the next few years. The child’s psychologically constructed self-image of his or her masculinity or femininity forms gender role identity. This development occurs as a part of sexual socialization, and is completed early in life for most adolescents. Gender identity is reinforced by both external factors such as peer group pressure as well as intrinsic factors such as hormonal changes. During adolescence, the individual confronts issues related to his or her developing sexuality and gender identity. The purpose of this paper is to focus on gender identity issues that adolescents face, and how they cope with them. Human Development Across the Lifespan: Gender Identity Issues in Adolescence Introduction Gender identity is defined as “the youngster’s internally perceived gender, regardless of chromosomal constitution, gonadal/ hormonal secretions, or genitalia” (Telingator & Daniolos, 2007: 79). Gender includes biological sex but is larger in scope, encompassing the socially prescribed roles which are considered appropriate for each sex, which are different in various cultures (Lee, 2005). Hence, gender role refers to culturally underwritten masculine and feminine behaviors, attitudes and personality traits which are based on biological factors as well as an individual’s environment. Aspects of sex-typed behavior in childhood, adolescence or in adulthood are affected by hormones that play a part very early in development, as early as age two or three, sometimes by age five or later (Sexson, 2005; Pescovitz & Eugster, 2004). At the core of adolescents’ development is the separation-individuation process by which adolescents become independent of their parents in a process similar to that which occurs during infancy. This paper proposes to examine the root of adolescent gender identity in early childhood, and focus on gender identity issues that adolescents may face and how they cope with them. Literature Review Early Years May Lay the Basis for Gender Identity Issues in Adolescence Children usually develop a gender identity which is in alignment with with their assigned sex, also known as their sex of rearing. The formation of gender identity is influenced by the combination of children’s temperament and parents’ qualities and attitudes. Culturally acceptable gender roles are learned stereotypical roles, by which boys are required to be masculine and girls to be feminine in their behavior and conduct. However, over the past few decades there has been increasing toleration for mild cross-gender activity in children (Sadock et al, 2007). “Sigmund Freud believed that gender identity problems resulted from conflicts experienced by children within the oedipal triangle” (Sadock et al, 2007: 718), which may be fueled by actual family events or by children’s fantasies. According to Freud, a normal gender identity is not formed when there is an interference in a child’s loving the opposite sex parent and identifying with the same sex parent. Further, the quality of the mother-child relationship in the first years of life is highly significant in establishing gender identity (Lee, 2005). During this period mothers normally facilitate their children’s awareness of and pride in their gender, valuing them as little boys and girls (Sadock et al, 2007; Lee, 2005). Gender-typical behavior is evident from a young age (Sigelman & Rider, 2005). In younger children gender role differences manifest as stereotypical play behavior, with girls choosing feminine, nurturing play involving dolls and dressing up, while boys prefer masculine rough and tumble play, and automotive and action toys. Among adolescents, gender role differences are evident through play and work preferences, friendships, extracurricular interests and courting patterns; these can change during the lifespan. Children’s books and the media play significant parts in re-inforcing stereotypes, especially among teenagers. Adolescents’ peers also contribute strongly towards enforcing gender roles (Telingator & Daniolos, 2007; Sadock et al, 2007). Development of Gender Identity and Gender Role in Adolescence According to developmental psychologist Erik Erikson (1902-1994), in the eight stages of psychosocial development in an individual’s life span, adolescence was a time of crisis. Lee (2005) states that research on the other hand, indicates that adolescence is no more stressful than other times of life. Erikson believed that an individual’s identity is related to each stage of the lifecycle; but during adolescence a conflict between identity and role confusion can arise. He stated that one consequence of identity formation is the facilitation to form intimate relationships. However, there may be a gender difference in the link between intimacy and identity. Erikson suggested that female identity development depended on finding a partner first, whereas for males, intimacy comes after identity (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2003). The complex interaction of both intrinsic or biologic factors and extrinsic factors contribute to the development and expression of sexuality. The extrinsic factors include the family environment, responses of peers, racial or ethnic views of sexuality, and the perspectives of sex and gender as viewed by society and culture. Thus, there are several ways in which children and adolescents learn the typical expressions of gender. The biologic factors of sexual differentiation which have an intrinsic influence on sex and gender begin with the differences in sex chromosomes. These factors along with information from the external world are then integrated by the child into a self-perception of being male or female. This is referred to as gender identity. An initial awareness of gender is present in children from an average age of eighteen months, and gender identity is established in most children by three years of age; however gender constancy develops in stages leading to a realization that gender is permanent by the age of three or four (Cohen-Kettenis & Pfafflin, 2003). The child’s psychologically constructed self-image of his or her femininity or masculinity forms gender role identity. This identity is dynamic and considered to change with the child’s growth and development. The child’s family, peers, cultural institutions are believed to enhance the individual’s expression of this gender role identity by accepting or rejecting roles that the child performs. Examples are particular careers and activities which are considered to be predominantly male pursuits, to which women are discouraged from participating. Another example is the cultural requirement that women athletes should appear feminine (Sexson, 2005). Anxiety about abnormal or atypical gender behavior may result in peers teasing and ostrasizing such adolescents, and in parents bringing these young people for mental health evaluations. Gender nonconformity in children may lead to the child growing up to be a sexual deviant belonging to the sexual minority group, and this is substantially higher among men than among women (Bailey & Zucker, 1995). Discussion Gender identity and gender role behavior were considered to be largely determined by interactions with the environment. Research evidence from children with disorders of sexual differentiation indicate that gender identity and gender role behaviors may not be as completely determined by extrinsic factors as earlier believed, and that intrinsic factors play an important part in gender identity and related role behaviors (Reiner & Gearhart, 2004). During adolescence, the major intrinsic factors are the hormonal changes related to sexual maturation. Due to increased production of pituitary hormones, there is progressive increase of testosterone in boys and estradiol in girls. Growth hormone secretion becomes established mid-puberty. Boys enter puberty around one year after girls. Learning to cope with physical changes emotionally and psychologically is one of the tasks of adolescence. Psychological and social difficulties can emerge from early puberty in girls and delayed puberty in boys (Sexson, 2005). Research conducted by Renk & Creasey (2003) supports the importance of considering the gender identity of late adolescents rather than simply focusing only on their gender, when evaluating how late adolescents cope with problematic circumstances. The results indicate that gender identity is a better predictor of coping strategies than gender. Gender was predictive of emotion focused coping strategies, especially among female late adolescents as compared to male late adolescents who demonstrated greater problem focused coping strategies. However, gender identity revealed a high association with problem and emotion focused coping strategies. Adolescent Sexuality “Adolescence is the time when young people begin to explore more intimate relationships with peers” (Sexson, 2005: 1941). This exploration may involve sexual activity. At this age many adolescents begin to understand their sexual orientation. For most young people, attraction to the opposite sex proceeds as expected; however when sexual orientation is not what the adolescent expected, sexual orientation becomes more of an issue. Sexual orientation refers to the gender to which the individual is attracted for the development of intimate attachments; and it includes cognitions, affects, fantasies and behaviors manifested by the indvidual. Heterosexual refers to orientation towards members of the opposite gender, homosexual if the orientation is towards members of the same gender, bisexual if towards members of both genders. Research studies have indicated a genetic component to sexual orientation, since twin studies have shown that same-sex orientation occurs more frequently in identical twins than in fraternal twins or in non-twin brothers. Similarly, in female homosexuality also, the role of heredity has been revealed. In addition to the role of genetics, research studies have investigated the effects of prenatal exposure to sex hormones, enzyme deficiencies in steroid systhesis pathways, and neuroanatomic differences. However, evidence about the origin of homosexual orientation is inconclusive (Sexson, 2005). During adolescence, all the changes that occur in the various realms of physical, cognitive and emotional development, form the basis for adolescent sexual development and sexual behavior. During this time, there is significant self-discovery among adolescents. During early adolescence, from eleven to fourteen years of age, there is psychosocial change when separation from parents begins and peer group norms begin to exert more influence. At this stage, adolescents focus on bodily pubertal changes, and compare their changes with those of same sex peers. There is an increase in sexual drive and sexual behavior, essentially related to the gonadal hormone levels that occur at puberty. Fuelled by curiosity, sexual experimentation with peers, sometimes with same sex peers may take place. There may be crushes with important adult figures in the adolescent’s life, some of whom may be adults of the same gender (Sexson, 2005). Middle adolescence from the age of fourteen to seventeen years is the time when puberty is generally complete. Physically the adolescent is mature and able to reproduce, but psychosocial development is still in progress. Conflicts with parents about limits and a need for independence is revealed at this time. Adolescents focus on gaining the approval of peers, whose influence is significant, and conformity to peer norms become increasingly important. Late adolescence from the age of seventeen to the early twenties is the time by which the young person’s sexual identity is well established, and the individual has developed the ability to form and maintain mutually satisfying intimate relationships (Sexson, 2005). Issues Faced by Adolescents in the Sexual Minority Savin-Williams (2005) believes that sexual identity which is an individual’s identity as a sexual being, is distinct from gender identity and behavior, it is related to sexual orientation, and is the outcome of conscious choice; hence it can change over time. Sexual minority is a term used to describe individuals who are not exclusively heterosexual. Sexual minority adolescents potentially develop into youth who manifest same-sex attractions, relationships or behaviors, irrespective of their self-identification as lesbian, gay or bisexual (Russell & Consolacion, 2003). The young people of today are “resisting the categorization of their emotional attachments as well as their intimate relations” (Telingator & Daniolos, 2007: 79). In the past, the categorization as gay, lesbian or bisexual assisted youth in finding community to which they could belong; today, however, in many parts of the world it is no longer necessary to segregate oneself with others who label themselves in a similar way in order to find acceptance. In recent times, sexual minority youth are helped by schools and the media, who have redefined community by creating role models that have supported the understanding of one’s sexual identity in a more complex manner. Increasing numbers of adults are seen to partner, have children and create a home and a life outside of a heterosexual framework. Similar to any aspect of identity development, the variation in adolescent sexual identity development is also complicated. It is not known exactly what are the biological, environmental, psychological and sociocultural influences which are critical to the formation of a sexual minority identity. All sexual minority adolescents do not face challenges of the same degree of severity. There are several cases in which such individuals are able to enter adulthood completely accepting of oneself and secure in their feelings regarding their sexual identity. This may be due to reasons such as a loving environment, a strong support system, or the adolescents’ own abilities to cope with the many challenges facede by youth in this stage of development. On the other hand, some sexual minority adolescents may be extremely vulnerable, from complex interactions of the child within the family, culture or society (Telingator & Daniolos, 2007). From the results of research it was found that mental health risks are higher among adolescent sexual minority populations. However, it is difficult to estimate or to isolate the extent of damage caused by external stressors as well as internalized effect of homophobia which is the fear or contempt expressed by others towards lesbians and gay men, on the one hand, versus other biological and psychosocial factors on the other hand. In order to cope with both internal and external stressors, the defenses that the adolescent uses may lead to compartmentalization for protecting this aspect of identity from others’ knowledge. To protect themselves from rejection, or from emotional or physical harm by family members, peers, community, or religious affiliation, adolescents may consciously or unconsciously resort to secrecy regarding his or her sexual orientation (Telingator & Daniolos, 2007). The adolescent may employ several other coping strategies such as conscious and unconscious responses to stressful events or situations. Coping could include all actions towards adapting to the environment, such as purposeful responses, reflexes, and automatic responses. The survey indicated that adolescents use differing coping strategies across differing stressors. The functional dimensions of coping are: problem focused coping, and coping efforts to regulate emotional states relating to the stressor, termed as emotion focused coping. Problem solving strategies include efforts to actively change the external causal factors. On the other hand, emotion focused coping involves emotional regulation including avoidance of the stressor, cognitive restructuring of the stressor, or selective focus on positive features of the situation or the self (Washburn-Ormachea, 2004). Conclusion This paper has highlighted the root of adolescent gender identity in early childhood, and focused on gender identity issues that adolescents face, and how they cope with them. During the adolescent years when young people are in the process of understanding their identities, how individuals identify their own gender roles may not be entirely consistent with their sexual orientation as heterosexual, homosexual, lesbian or bisexual. Adolescents may undergo some confusion or experimentation about sexual orientation at this time (Sexson, 2005). Different coping strategies are used across the various stressors that adolescents normally face. Coping successfully with their emerging sexuality during the adolescent years is crucial for resolving gender identity issues, in order to ensure a balanced and harmonious adult life. References Bailey, J.M. & Zucker, K.J. 1995. Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: a a conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31(1): 43-55. Cardwell, M. & Flanagan, C. 2003. Psychology A2. The United States of America: Nelson Thornes. Cohen-Kettenis, P. & Pfafflin, F. 2003. 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