Analysis of Stone Henge - Essay Example

Stonehenge One of the most famous stone creations made during the Neolithic period is Stonehenge, the megalithic stone circles located on Salisbury Plain just outside of Amesbury in England, but there are numerous constructions of this type scattered through England and Europe. According to a history of architecture, these types of constructions were immediately preceded and made possible by technologies developed as a result of spiritual observances in which megaliths were eventually used to build passage graves (graves containing a tomb chamber in the center of a mound of some sort with a passage leading to it) (“Occasional Caves”, 2007). As this technology developed, and the religious observations increasingly became tied with the natural world, the constructions began to include astronomical links as graves were aligned with annual cycles of the sun. “An outstanding example is the passage grave at Newgrange in Ireland, dating from about 2500 BC. Huge slabs of stone, carved in intricate spiral patterns, form the walls of the chamber. At sunrise on the winter solstice (the shortest day of the year, when the sun itself seems in danger of dying) the rays penetrate the length of the passage to illuminate the innermost recess” (“Occasional Caves”, 2007). Eventually, this concept moved away from the grave as such and into the greater realm, focusing nearly exclusively upon the astronomical cycles. An examination of the workings of Stonehenge, the experience it provides and what it seems to represent, indicate that the structure served a more astronomical use than burial. The meanings behind the large circles of stone can only be guessed at. As has been noted, earlier grave sites were normally aligned with the winter solstice, allowing a shaft of sunlight to enter the chamber only on that day and that hour. However, once the circle was removed from such a close association with death, it is argued that the larger standing stones became aligned instead with sunrise at the summer solstice. While the stones of Stonehenge are aligned to various astronomical times (Souden, 1997), there are several indications that the circles may have served a deeper purpose than providing a necessary solar calendar for people who survived on cultivating the land. One theory holds that the circles are indeed aligned with the summer solstice as a means of reflecting the joining of the Earth Goddess, symbolized by the womb-like shape of the monument and the supine, glittering surface of the Altar Stone, with the Sky Father, symbolized by the open air structure and the entrance of light. Others, such as Christopher Chippendale (1994) suggest that the alignment is more closely aligned with the midwinter sunset. About the only thing sure about Stonehenge is that its meaning was complex and immensely important to the generations of Neolithic farmers who lived in the area. With the origins of the structure lost to time, archaeological evidence remains the only means by which today’s culture might discover the people who built the structure. It is known to have built in three major phases, the last of which in which the stones were put into place, consisting of a number of sub-phases. The first phase (2950-2900 BC) consisted of three circles with the smaller two contained within the first. The first, outer circle was created by digging a long circular ditch. This surrounded an earthworks bank which, in turn, surrounded an inner circle of 56 wooden posts. Today, these posts are known to have existed because of the presence of what are called Aubrey holes (Witcombe, 2008). The second phase (2900-2400 BC) saw the construction of timber constructions within the center of the circle. Unfortunately, the post holes are so plentiful and in such confused order that there is no way that modern researchers can discover their original configuration or understand the shape, form or function of these inner structures. In addition, “the Aubrey holes no longer held posts but were partially filled, some with cremation deposits added to the fill” (Witcombe, 2008). The third and longest phase, lasting from approximately 2550-1600 BC, consisted of placing the stones that still stand on the Salisbury Plain today. The bluestones are thought to have been the first installed, but then were dismantled again to make room for the installment of the sarsen stones and the trilithons. To facilitate understanding of the structure, it is helpful to know the various elements of Stonehenge. For example, the outer stone rings are referred to as the Sarsen circle because it is made up of sarsen stone, which is a particular type of sandstone held together with naturally-occurring siliceous cement (Witcombe, 2008). “The Sarsen circle, about 108 feet in diameter, was originally comprised of 30 neatly trimmed upright sandstone blocks of which only 17 are now standing … They originally supported sarsen lintels forming a continuous circle around the top. Each lintel block has been shaped to the curve of the circle” (Witcombe, 2008). The original continuous circle is no longer visible, with several stones fallen out of place or missing altogether. Inside this first stone circle is another stone configuration. The trilithons are five pairs of stones standing upright with a single lintel connecting them across the top. These are placed in a horseshoe-shaped pattern facing the main entrance on the north-east. “They were arranged symmetrically and graded in height; the tallest is in the central position” (Witcombe, 2008). However, today, only three of the trilithons still stand in position. The other two have lost their lintels and one of the upright pairs, each of which lie on the ground nearby. Finally, there was an extensive arrangement of bluestones. There is evidence that bluestones once formed an oval placed just inside the trilithon horseshoe and another circle around the outside of the trilithons but inside the sarsens. Today, though, only parts of a bluestone circle can be found around the outside of the trilithons and a small bluestone horseshoe is suggested just inside the trilithons. There are other significant stones within the monument as well. What has become known as the Altar stone is thought to be a piece of Cosheston Beds Sandstone brought in from south Wales presumably because of its difference from the other stones. It is the only example of this type of stone at Stonehenge and stands out for this reason as well as its placement just in front of the largest trililthon pair which stands in the center of the horseshoe. Inside the outer earthwork bank and well outside the Sarsen Circle were once four Station Stones. These were more sarsen stones placed at specific points, but not necessarily to indicate the same thing. Two of the stones were surrounded by a circular ditch and only two of the stones remain standing today. Another stone is placed just inside the earthwork ditch at a point where there is a break in the ditch-mound configuration to create what is commonly recognized as the main entrance. This stone is called the Slaughter Stone. The Avenue is an earthwork road-type structure that leads to the north-east of the monument and, some ways down this road is found the Heel Stone. “The stone now leans out of vertical but most likely once stood upright. Originally, the Heel Stone may have been paired with another stone now missing” (Witcombe, 2008). The technology involved in creating Stonehenge has been a source of constant conjecture and experimentation and begin to answer questions regarding the people who built Stonehenge. Part of the reason for this is the distance the stones traveled before they could be erected at the site. The sarsen stones, for example, are believed to have come from the Marlborough Downs, which is approximately 18.5 miles north while the dense bluestones were brought from the Preseli Hills in Pembrokeshire, Wales, approximately 200 miles away (Witcombe, 2008). As each stone weighs as much as four tons each, this represents an amazing technological feat in the ages before such modern conveniences as steamships or lifting cranes. However, these bluestones are a significant clue to the builders of the site. “This wind-blown, dome shaped landmark for sailors on the Irish Sea was probably a sacred place for the Beaker Peoples. Mr. Prescelly might have been like Mount Olympus in the traditions of the Greeks” (Sullivan, 1998). How the Beaker Peoples got these stones this far remains a mystery, but the most common theories involve a combination of dragging sledges along rollers and floating on rafts as a means of transport. The Beaker Peoples are thought to have brought in most, if not all, of the bluestone seen today, following the design of the Windmill Hill People who had worked the original ditch and mound construction using “the shoulder blades of oxen, wood and antlers of red deer” as picks and shovels (Sullivan, 1998). These people were followed by the Wessex people, who created the sarsen circle and engineered the trilithons, again using rollers and sledges as transportation vehicles. The use of the structure remains as unexplainable as its construction. Several possibilities exist including the idea the possibility of a solar temple, a lunar observatory, an astronomical calendar, a source of healing energy or an extraterrestrial monument (Easton, 2002). For example, the sun shines directly on the Altar Stone on the morning of the Summer Solstice, yet there are other astronomical connections in which light shines on different portions of the monument at different times of the year as well, such as during the winter solstice. The monument can also be used to determine equinox and lunar eclipses. It also seems clear that, despite the names given to some of the stones, sacrifice was not necessarily carried out within the monument as radiocarbon dating has found no conclusive evidence of such practices. In addition, no bones have been found on the site to suggest it was a burial mound in keeping with older traditions (Easton, 2002). However, it is perhaps significant to point out that cremated human remains were often used to fill post holes, perhaps suggesting changes in burial rites and practices and some sort of understanding of the site as a sacred place for the few existing remains of the higher class. While there seems to be little evidence for us to determine just what Stonehenge was intended to be, what it was used for or just who the people were who built the structure, there is enough information available for us to make some inferences. For example, given that we have been unable to duplicate the moving of bluestones with any reasonable degree of success using the known technology of these early peoples, we must assume the people who built Stonehenge were much more sophisticated in their thinking than we typically attribute them. The arrangement of the stones and the amount of organization and engineering skill it would have taken to position the stones in such perfect alignment suggests a highly successful society that has well-developed scientific knowledge. That there is no sign of sacrifice or burial suggests that while religious services may have been held here, it is not necessary a religious site and was presumably not associated with concepts of death or appeasement. Because so much of the structure is missing and so little information remains regarding the builders, it is impossible to determine whether the design of the monument was successful in serving the needs of its community; however, it is equally difficult to assume that it did not given the care, effort and sophistication it represents. - Works Cited Chippindale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994. Easton, Karyn. “Stonehenge.” Paranormality. 2002. March 3, 2008 “Occasional Caves and Temporary Tents.” History of Architecture. (2007). History World. March 3, 2008 Souden, David. Stonehenge Revealed. London: Facts on File, 1997. Sullivan, Nicolette. 1998. Stonehenge. FortuneCity. March 3, 2008 Witcombe, Christopher L.C.E. “Stonehenge.” Earth Mysteries. Virginia: Sweet Briar College, 2008. March 3, 2008 Read More