Sexual Activity and Human Sexual Behavior - Essay Example

Sexual activity in humans is a natural form of physical intimacy. It may be performed for the purposes of biological reproduction spiritual transcendence, expressing affection, and/or for pleasure and enjoyment (known in this context as "sexual gratification"). The desire to have sex is one of the basic drives of human behavior. Every sexually reproductive animal species, and every human culture, has a range of conduct used in courtship, intimacy, and sexual activity. Human sexual behavior is therefore the behaviors that human beings use when seeking sexual or relational partners, gaining approval of possible partners, forming relationships, showing sexual desire, and coitus. It covers at least two major areas: anthropology (common or accepted practices across different cultures), and informational (background which is useful to individuals who may be engaged in, or considering, sexual activity) Theories of sexual development may be broadly divided into two schools of thought: Those which tend to emphasize innate biology, which may be encouraged or disturbed during childhood. That is, that human sexual development is primarily a biological process and thus basically similar across cultures, and that there is thus a relatively narrow model for healthy sexual development, although this may be disturbed by the influence of the larger culture or by other means. This is the approach used most often in the medical study of child development. Those which tend to emphasize sexuality as a social construct (with child sexuality strongly influenced by the larger society). This latter school often uses the terms normative (culturally appropriate behavior) and non-normative (culturally inappropriate behavior),and is the approach used in most social scholarship and most discussed in this article. Research Early research The two most famous figures in child sexuality research are probably Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956). Freuds 1905 work Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality outlined a theory of psychosexual development with five distinct phases: the oral stage (0 - 1.5 years), the anal stage (1.5 - 3.5 years), the phallic stage (3.5 - 6 years) culminating in the resolution of the Oedipus conflict followed by a period of sexual latency (6 years to puberty) and the genital, or adult, stage. Freuds basic thesis was that childrens early sexuality is polymorphous and that strong incestual drives develop, and the child must harness or sublimate these to develop a healthy adult sexuality. Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rx by Sophocles. “I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood,” Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict. Freud originally posited childhood sexual abuse as a general explanation for the origin of neuroses, but he abandoned this so-called "seduction theory" as insufficiently explanatory, noting that he had found many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on imagination than on real events. During the late 1890s Freud, who never abandoned his belief in the sexual etiology of neuroses, began to emphasize fantasies built around the Oedipus complex as the primary cause of hysteria and other neurotic symptoms. Despite this change in his explanatory model, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had been sexually abused by their fathers, and was quite explicit about discussing several patients that he knew to have been abused. Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process designed by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infants pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddlers pleasure in emptying his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. Freud argued that children then passed through a stage in which they fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex) but that the child eventually overcame and repressed this desire because of its taboo nature. (The lesser known Electra complex refers to such a fixation upon the father.) The repressive or dormant [latency stage] of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development. Freuds way of interpretation has been called phallocentric by many contemporary thinkers. This is because, for Freud, the unconscious always desires the phallus (penis). Males are afraid of castration - losing their phallus or masculinity to another male. Females always desire to have a phallus - an unfulfillable desire. Thus boys resent their father (fear of castration) and girls desire theirs. For Freud, desire is always defined in the negative term of lack - you always desire what you dont have or what you are not, and it is very unlikely that you will fulfill this desire. Thus his psychoanalysis treatment is meant to teach the patient to cope with his unsatisfiable desires. Freuds theories were developed about a century ago in an environment differing from the modern, and his research was largely confined to his own observations and readings. Some of Freuds theories (such as penis envy) have been largely superseded, and many modern experts consider his work obsolete, but the core body of his work has never been entirely either accepted or rejected by the scientific and medical communities. Alfred Kinsey, whose two seminal works are the Kinsey Reports (1948 and 1953), marshalled the resources to make the first large-scale surveys of sexual behavior. Kinseys work focuses on adults, but he also studied children and developed the first statistical reports of childhood masturbation. Swedish researcher IngBeth Larsson, writing in 2000, notes that "It is quite common for references still to cite Alfred Kinsey", due to the paucity of subsequent large-scale studies of childrens sexual behavior. Current methodology of study Empirical knowledge about child sexual behaviour is not usually gathered by direct interviews of children, (partly due to ethical considerations),but rather by: Observing children being treated for problematical behavior such as use of force in sex play,[ often using dolls having genitals. Recollections by adults. and Observation by caregivers. Behavior Normative and non-normative behaviors Although there is variation between individuals, children generally are curious about their own bodies and those of others and engage in explorative sex play. However, child sexuality is fundamentally different from goal-driven adult sexual behavior, and imitation of adult behaviors such as bodily penetration and oral-genital contact are very uncommon, but are more common among children who have been sexually abused. Children with other types of behaviour disorder may also display more behaviours of a sexual nature than other children. Symptomatic behaviors Children who have been the victim of sexual abuse usually show sexualized behavior, which may be defined as expressed behavior that is non-normative for the culture. Typical symptomatic behaviors in developed societies may include attempting to involve other children in unwanted sexual activities, and excessive masturbation or public masturbation. Sexualized behavior can constitute the best indication that a child has been sexually abused, although some victims do not exhibit abnormal behavior. Children who exhibit sexualized behavior may also have other behavioral problems, although factors other than sexual abuse may cause these problems. Other symptoms of sexual abuse may include manifestations of post-traumatic stress in younger children; fear, aggression, and nightmares in young school-age children; and depression in older children. Normative behavior The following sections describe typical culturally-normed behavior in most current developed Western societies. Early childhood The term early childhood may cover up through ages four, five, or six, depending on the focus of the particular researcher or commentator. During this period, Children are often curious about where babies come from. Children may explore other childrens and adults bodies out of curiosity. By age four, children may show significant attachment to the opposite-sex parent. Children begin to have a sense of modesty and of the difference between private and public behavior. For many children, genital touching increases, especially when they are tired or upset. Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during this period children should learn: That touching their sex organs is normal, and to seek privacy when they want to touch their sex organs for pleasure. The biological differences between males and females, and how babies are made. That the childs body belongs to himself or herself, and how to say "no" to unwanted touching. The correct terms for sexual body parts, and how to talk about all their body parts without feeling naughty. Masturbation and orgasm According to Alfred Kinsey research in the 1950s, children are capable of experiencing orgasm from the age of five months. Kinsey observed that among three-year-olds, girls more often masturbated than boys. Lubrication of the vagina was also observed on sexually aroused girls, similar to that of adult women. Until boys start producing semen (around puberty), they can only experience dry orgasms More recent studies in Sweden indicate that masturbation in children of this age is unusual, and more common with boys than with girls. Some researchers have suggested that child masturbation may be considered nonsexual if the child has not learned to associate it with sex. Early school age Early school age covers approximately ages five, six, and seven. Children become more aware of gender differences, and tend to choose same-sex friends and playmates, even disparaging the opposite sex. Children may drop their close attachment to their opposite-sex parent and become more attached to their same-sex parent. During this time children, especially girls, show increased awareness of social mores regarding sex, nudity, and privacy.Children may use sexual terms to test adult reaction. "Bathroom humor" (jokes and conversation relating to excretory functions), present in earlier stages, continues. Masturbation continues to be common. Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during early school years, children should learn these concepts: That all creatures reproduce themselves, and how plants and animals grow and reproduce. That all people, including the childs parents and grandparents, live through a life cycle that has a beginning and an end and includes sexuality at all ages. That people experience sexual pleasure in a number of ways, and that it is normal to have sexual thoughts and fantasies. About non-stereotyped gender roles, and that sexual identity includes sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, straight, or bisexual).[ About sexual abuse and its dangers — that sexual predators may seem kind, giving, and loving, and may be friends or family members; and to protect themselves from potential sexual abuse. Middle childhood Middle childhood covers the ages from about six to about nine, depending on the methodology and the behavior being studied. Individual development varies considerably. As this stage progresses, childrens choice of same-sex friends becomes more marked, extending to disparagement of the opposite sex. Sexual activities A 1943 study of primarily white, middle and upper-middle class Midwestern urban boys found that 16% claimed to have had experienced coitus (more likely attempted coitus) by age 8. Later childhood age Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during this period children should learn: The general stages of sexual development in young humans of each sex and the general timing of normal development (including emotional changes). That sex is pleasurable. Knowledge about aspects of sex in society, including prostitution, rape, and exploitive relationships. How to protect oneself against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. The age of puberty has fallen about four years over the last century, in most places. This is probably due to changes in diet (primarily nutrition). The sexualization of children in Western cultures emerged in the latter part of the twentieth century as a noted concern across various sectors (religious, feminist, educators, etc.). Some cultural critics have postulated that over recent decades children have evidenced a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behaviour inappropriate for their age group. A number of different causes are cited, including media portrayals of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; marketing of products with sexual connotations to children (for example the Bratz Baby dolls that wear thongs); lack of parental oversight and discipline; access to adult culture via the internet; and school sex education programs. Historical and tribal societies Child sexuality, like adult sexuality, may take many forms and be gauged by different norms in different societies. Thus, a given behavior that is problematic in one society may be normative in another. For instance, observations of early Tahitian society indicate childhood sexual activity was more openly encouraged than normally found in other societies. Notes Larsson, IngBeth. 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"The sexual development of boys," American Journal of Psychology, 56(2), 217-33. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-07/11/content_244578.htm China Daily Interview with Chen Yiyun, professor of the Institute of Sociology with the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences http://www.springerlink.com/content/qg7tu631r7503228/ Victoria (Australia) Crimes Act, 1958, section 45(4)) http://aboutourkids.med.nyu.edu/aboutour/articles/sexual.html#effects http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=109621&in_page_id=1770) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/2943874.stm References Diana Gittins, Childrens Sexuality: Why Do Adults Panic?. In The Child in Question. Macmillan, 1997. ISBN 0-333-51109-3. Ronald Goldman and Juliette Goldman, Childrens Sexual Thinking: A Comparative Study of Children Aged Five to Fifteen Years in Australia, North America, Britain and Sweden. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982. ISBN 0-7100-0883-X. Loretta Haroian, "Child Sexual Development", monograph prepared for student use at the Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality, ca. 1985. Online copy by the Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality. Stevi Jackson, Childhood and Sexuality. Blackwell Publishing, 1982. ISBN 0-631-12871-9 Judith Levine: Harmful to Minors: The Perils of Protecting Children from Sex argues that trying to protect young people from sex can actually exacerbate or even create the much-feared sexual danger. Floyd M. Martinson, "Children and Sex, Part II: Childhood Sexuality", in Bullough, Vern Leroy & Bullough, Bonnie (eds.), Human Sexuality: An encyclopedia, New York: Garland Publishing, 1994, p. 111-116. Online copy, reprinted with permission Floyd M. Martinson, The Sexual Life of Children, Bergin & Garvey, 1994. ISBN 0-89789-376-X Susan M. Moore, Doreen A. Rosenthal, Sexuality in Adolescence. Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-07528-9 David L. Weis, "Childhood Sexuality", in Robert T. Francoeur (ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, New York: Continuum, 1997. Online Copy by the Magnus Hirschfeld Archive of Sexology Sharon Lamb (2002). The Secret Lives of Girls: What Good Girls Really Do--Sex Play, Aggression, and Their Guilt, Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-0107-8. Gil, E. & Cavanagh Johnson, T. (1993). Sexualized children – Assessment and treatment of sexualized children and children who molest. Launch Press. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit. Kendall-Tackett, Williams and Finkelhor (1993), op. cit.; cited in Larsson, op. cit. Psychology: The science of behavior 5th edition by Neil R.Carlson & William Buskist. (ALLYN & BACON 1997) Page Numbers 15 & 467-469. Read More