The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach - Essay Example

Running ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES A Review of English Language Learning Strategies Used in rooms in the UK. [YourUni] "I seek a method by which teachers teach less and learners learn more." - Johann Comenicus, writer of the first illustrated textbook (1630)  Introduction In the multicultural approach to society of 21st century UK it is evident that strategies to aid learners of English as a second language is necessary. Supportive teaching practices provide the English as an Additional Language (ESL) student to fully participate with the school curriculum, as well as the wider community. It is essential that teachers and developmental researchers, among others, learn and try to explain the processes of learning for the ESL pupil (Hernández, 2003). It is well known that language ability is an integral facet of general knowledge and learning ability. Prior educational experiences can influence the destiny of learners from non-English speaking backgrounds at English schools (Candlin & Mercer, 2001). For recent arrivals, the educational experiences they have had in their country can play an important role in determining their success at school in England. The extent of formal schooling and the level reached previous to their migration will determine their familiarity with learning in an academic situation. Also, overseas- educated parents of English-born EAL students will have expectations of schooling shaped by their learning experiences (Lipjakova, 2003). Parental expectations will not necessarily match those of teachers in schools, and so there may by different attitudes towards discipline, curriculum content (including extra-curricular activities) as well as the nature and extent of parental involvement (Harding & Riley, 1986). The way in which the school responds to these differences will significantly affect both parent and learner attitudes to the school and ultimately the EAL students’ progress. Also, research indicates that competence in English is related to the level of competence in a learner’s first language: “Children with greater proficiency in L1 appear to learn L2 more easily” (Cummins, 1984, p. 136). In the past, EAL students were encouraged abandon their first language and to use English as much as possible. Today it is much more widely appreciated that well-developed proficiency in the first language is a positive advantage in learning a second language. It is also now seen that it is very important to maintain and develop the first language for a number of other crucial reasons, including the maintenance of family, peer and community relationships, as well as continued cognitive development and growth in self-esteem and identity of the individual EAL student. Hence, it is critical to recognise what knowledge is needed by ESL students, and what are the most effective strategies for meeting thee needs. A childs self-concept, their identity and their interpersonal relationships will all impact on their social and psychological well being as an adult (Hernández, 2003). Through language a learner is able to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding (Piaget, 1952). The current use of pre-instructional activities, visual aids, dance and re-phrasing and group work, aim to meet the learning needs of ESL students. Pre-Instructional Activities It is the process of semantic webbing that enables the organisation and visual representation of knowledge. The web has at its centre a major theme or concept. Strands reach out to branch into sub-divisions of the sub-elements. As an ESL learning strategy, the activity aids the student in conceptualising and breaking down their ideas as they organise them along an interlinking semantic web. Students are better able to understand and organise incoming information, anchoring new knowledge to semantic nodes along the strands (Kanuka, 2005). The complexity of the web will be a function of the student’s ability to communicate their understanding. An advantage of this strategy is that the ESL student can use it in class to take notes during an activity, as a reference tool, and as an exam prep aid. The teacher plays the role of guide, as they facilitate the ESL child to recognise links between textual and non-textual information (Juffs, 1998). For example, during reading activities the teacher could draw the student’s attention to graphical representations; during writing the student could be assisted to visually represent their existing knowledge with diagrams or mind maps sow as to organise the information before writing it as text; during oral activities the teacher could make salient references to non-verbal supports, such as demonstrating how something happens or pointing to objects and relevant diagrams. Overall, the teacher and student actively engage in the language learning process. In particular, contextual support is needed from teachers and from fellow-learners. Language learners will not learn best when just left to their own devices, rather they require help from others who are proficient in the language, people who can create the right conditions and guide the language learning process. Teachers can assist language learners in numerous ways (Brown, 1991, p. 9; Anton, 1999; METAS, 2001): Ensuring that the learning environment is one where ESL student feels supported and valued, where they are able to take risks and make mistakes in their learning without fear of being ridiculed. Semantic webbing aids the ESL student to make use of their existing knowledge of the world, both in learning English, and the curriculum as a whole. It helps the ESL student to build on, and transfer their knowledge of how language works, from their first language to English, by providing opportunities to reflect on and talk about the second language itself. The graphical representation of the students understanding and approach to learning of English is the outcome of using semantic webbing. The visual-spatial activity provides an opportunity for the ESL learner to reflect on their prior knowledge and experiences. The layered design of the web also allows the student to organise their knowledge in a way that highlights relationships that makes sense to them personally. The student can compare prior information and new knowledge gained from an activity by way of the web. Semantic webbing can be described as being one of two forms: divergent webbing or convergent webbing. With divergent webbing a keyword is written down, and the ESL student verbalises as many words that they know in English about the theme/concept (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997). These words are also written on the side of the page. The student then groups the words into categories that make sense to them, and apply a label which is descriptive of each group of words. During the labelling process, the ESL student is encouraged to discuss and debate their choice of label with other students. In contrast, convergent webbing requires that the ESL student identify several themes/concepts form an activity, and to write each of these themes/concepts in a column. Each ESL student then discusses with classmates their prior knowledge on the topics. A brief summary is written beneath each category. ESL students should be encouraged along with other pupils to anticipate and make hypotheses about the themes/concepts (Kanuka, 2005). Predications are discussed and then written within the appropriate category. The students can then complete an activity that incorporates the themes/concepts and reflect on the accuracy of their predications, and record new information they have learned that adds to the depth of knowledge about their categories. Semantic webbing is conceded to be an effective learning strategy for ESL students as it draws on the knowledge that they have at this moment to build more complex conceptual pictures. The student is able to see themselves organising their thinking and grasping the clear links between sub-elements of the web, thus empowering their self-confidence as a learner and problem-solver. The outcomes for pre-activities are that they provide the ESL student with a cognitive tool by which to practice, learn and reflect in a creative and innovative way. Graphic organizers can be described as visual displays of themes/concepts, and their sub-elemental parts and inter-relationships. Four basic types of graphic organisers are hierarchical, conceptual, sequential and cyclical styles of constructing knowledge (Watson, 2005). Hierarchical organisers categorise information according to rank into levels and sub-levels, creating flow charts and other linear classificatory instruments (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997). The conceptual organiser is comprised of a central idea, and petals of supporting information, developing into a Vehn diagram or a min-map. Oraganisers which are sequential categorise information chronologically, such as with a timeline (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997). And finally, cyclical patterns are circular successions of feedback loops, such as evidenced in evaporation cycles. Hence, the ESL student has a selection of graphic organisers from which to draw from when needing to consolidate the learning and meaning of a class activity of language task. For example, a third grade class in a rural Virginian school collected data on their learning processes during science classes (Watson, 2005). It was anticipated that the study would shed light as to which specify types of learning that graphic organisers support. They used a qualitative design, an in-depth investigation made up of field notes, student artifacts and semi-structured interviews. The results showed that themes and concepts were emergent for the students across time, these included takes motivation, efficiency, hierarchical organisation in a visual way, knowledge reconstruction and cooperative socialisation. The researchers concluded that constructivist theory (e.g., Piaget, Vygotsky, White) supported the results which showed that new information was linked to prior knowledge by the student, and formed a complex webbed network of organised conceptual understanding. The documentation method of this study highlighted the gradual progression of students to more complex and organised themes/concepts. It was clearly evident that during the course of the study that the students were less likely to just list information that they heard from the teacher and more inclined to sketch out more complex and inter-linking network diagrams (Watson, 2005). Visual aids, pictures & multimedia Another branch of learning strategies for ESL students is the use of visual aids, such as pictures and technological advances in multimedia. Common visual aids that can be used include; the blackboard/whiteboard; reala; puppets; pictures; picture cards; flash cards; reading cards; textbooks and human visual aids (e.g. Power Point, DVDs, TV). Twenty-first century living in the UK provides a wealth of exposure to an audio-visual-tactile environment (Telematics for Teacher Training in ELT [TELT], 1999-2001). As such, our geo-historical location requires that UK teachers be aware of the visual aid inputs of the English language that are available to the ESL student (Hui Siu, 1988). Also, the students themselves will have high expectations of the visual aids used by teachers, due to their constant exposure to high quality graphics, novel mediums and engaging messages. Evidence of this is in classrooms that rely solely on a whiteboard and textbook to support the ESL learning experience. For students in middle childhood it appears easy for them to accept that inherent quality of language in sound and colour (Hui Siu, 1988). Children have a wonderful way of engaging with their environments fully, using physical structures and objects or persons and animals to stimulate creative thinking and to induce learning. In the same way it is necessary that teachers too seek to foster a childs ability to engage with activities within the classroom. Perceptual stimulation and aid in learning begins in infancy, and during the school years there is an abundance of learning focused opportunities to develop this skill and organise a network of meaning between knowledge categories. Especially, interesting and stimulating visual aids have been found to enhance the English learning ability of very young students (TELT, 1999-2001). They were found to be motivated, confident in speaking and practically applying the knowledge, and fully participating in learning activities. It is noted though that use of visual aids requires teacher facilitation in order to be effective and to positively influence the learning outcomes of all the students. As such, visual aids can be used to; motivate students to engage with an activity; revise earlier work; to present conclusions; to practice or to carry out an activity; and to consolidate new knowledge (Hui Siu, 1988). Hui Sui reports that visual aids can help the lesson to have a high level of interesting stimuli for the ESL student, as well as encouraging them to use the language. This may be especially helpful for the students at the emergent language stage. The visual aids also contribute to including the ESL student more fully into the activity, as many symbols can be vastly universal or intuitive (Hui Sui, 1988). This aids the student in their communication with their peers, as well as recognising clear links between knowledge, both previously known and newly acquired. Ultimately, all levels of language learners and learners in general, benefit from visual aids. Visual aids can help with tonal learning as well, be highlighting which word or phrase needs to be emphasied. For example (esl.about.com): * When did Tom drink five cups of coffee? Tom drank five cups of coffee this morning. * Who drank five cups of coffee this morning? Tom drank five cups of coffee this morning. * How many cups of coffee did Tom drink this morning? Tom drank five cups of coffee this morning. One approach, using schema theory, is to describe the way in which an ESL reader draws on background knowledge with the information presented in the text, and so forms an understanding of what is being read (Stott). Each childs schema differs due to their cultural-specific nature. This is the critical point for the ESL learner, and pre-activities are often used to stimulate this previous knowledge (schemata) to filter incoming information. An ESL student’s inability to read a text may be due to insufficient prior knowledge. These schemata can be visually expressed on cards or posters, and in stories or song, to provide all students with their own personal meaning of a symbol. A biology teacher used his class to stimulate and challenge the students with questions which were presented using visual aids. An observation of the teacher’s classroom practices and a semi-structured interview showed that the combination of visual aids and questions at the beginning of the class created a sense of excitement amongst the students (Dong, 2002). The visual aids, such as graphs, tables, pictures, maps, and symbols are changed from abstract concepts to day-to-day observations. The open ended question and visual aid appeared to stimulate the students to meaningfully engage with the teacher and the learning process. Passive or rote memorisation of definitions did not occur, as the children interacted with the learning experience itself, discussing and debating their ideas among each other and their teacher. In regards to the teachers approach to teaching ESL students he says: When I teach the ESL classes, I am more in tuned to their language abilities. I would be more apt to ask questions, asking them about the words that they don’t understand and take a little more time to go over the language… Whatever the concept that I teach I try to be as illustrative as possible with things that the students can do… I know the word ‘cell’ is just a kind of an abstract idea. But if they look into the microscope and find all those boxes. Then I will say, what is it made of? They say little boxes. I say, yeah, that’s what they aremade of. OK, we call them cells… Once you get the concept, then the vocabulary is easy because they can relate to something (Dong, 2002). Visual aids provide a rich source of learning aids to the ESL student, as well as to the student for whom English is a first language. They can mediate the learning of new information, and its consolidation with previous knowledge, by way of culture specific schemata. Cooperative Groups, Peer Coaching A wealth of research exists to support the use of one-to-one study support across a wide variety of curriculum programs (Rhine, 2003). In peer coaching, a competent student is usually paired with another who needs support. With peer mentoring, a more competent student may have a small group of students that they advise on study skills or resource access. However, it has been reported that the learning strategy is not often used in UK schools, or if they do occur they tend to be unstructured or brief (Rhine, 2003). Peer coaching provides opportunities for students to socially interact and learn inter-personal skills. Further, for the ESL student, peer coaching extends their support network as well as providing them with real-world contexts in which to practice their language knowledge. As a learning strategy, peer coaching provides students with a continuous way of monitoring student achievements; supports English language use and socio-cultural skills; allows practice of topic specific terms and another’s interpretation of a theme/concept; creates an environment of equal participation in regards to evaluation and class discussion; encourages each of the student’s involved to develop their problem-solving skills in a systematic and scientific way; initiates the development of team-work and leadership skills; and provides opportunities to use different coaching models depending on the learning objectives (Rhine, 2003). The technique is widely applauded for its effectiveness in regards to peer learning in general, as well as enhancing the language development of ESL students (Koboyashi, 2003). The setting of two or more peers as a collaborative group provides a medium for exchange of ideas, to develop trust, and connectedness and friendship bonds. The rational behind the strategy is that students are active agents who are capable of choosing their own learning and socialisation settings. These choices are enhanced and hindered by the physical environment. A study in Canada found that peer support in L2 classrooms showed a significant increase in the student’s ability to scaffold their learning, and to develop linguistic knowledge and meaning (Koboyashi, 2003). Peer counselling session for three Japanese students were audio-visually recorded and the pairs of students were interviewed, as well the students kept journals and class papers. They found that peer coaching provided insight into the extra-curricular activities of the students, and the expectations of the ESL students towards their teachers and learning experiences. The study also brought to light how the ESL student’s were contextualising the task, and how they interpreted the interdependence of the spoken and written aspects of tasks (Koboyashi, 2003). Overall, the ESL student’s participation in the peer counselling was guided by the choices they made as active agents who had individual backgrounds, beliefs, values and behavioural responses. Further, it appears that the inter-group discussions that occurred promoted reflective activities that enabled the ESL students to learn form others experiences, and to be in a confident position to use their developing English skills in the classroom. Music and jazz chant activities English is rhythmic in nature, and the correct use of rhythmic patterns can be difficult and confusing for the ESL student. Some theorists suggest that a lack of rhythm with a language is a critical barrier to fluency (Ilciukiene, 2005). The concept of song and instrumental music to aid English language learning across the curriculum has been of recent research interest. These activities can be used to aid listening and reading comprehension, pronunciation and presentation practice, writing practice, and socio-cultural experiences (Stott, 2001). It has been found that listening to music and participating in class activities that involve song or music can stimulate all students to learn, as well as reducing anxiety about learning ability. Musical activities can aid students to engage in activities, and to remember information. One study used music and songs to present grammar and vocabulary to grade 2 ESL students (Stott, 2001). The study was over a six week period using a control and an experimental group of 14 students each. The control class received only traditional methods of vocab and grammar information; whereas the experimental group supplemented song and music activities to the traditional methods. Overall, the control group showed a pre-post improvement from 72% to 84%. However, the treatment group made a dramatic pre-post improvement, with scores rising from 66% accuracy to 90% on the final test. It is not known if a t-test was carried out to test the significance of the differences of the two groups. It was concluded that music and song are effective as learning aids in ESL English acquisition. In another study set in North America, ESL middle school students were observed as they used music and song activities to re-tell stories, or to speak in general (Stott, 2001). Over 12 weeks, the early high school students completed pre-post tests of re-telling a story. Thirty-four students made up a control and experimental group. Musical activities included music and movement, group chanting and singing, games with music, rhythm training, sign language, lyrical analysis and re-writing activities. Chi square analysis showed that the English speaking skills over the three months significantly improved for those who used song and music. All of the ESL students in the experimental group had higher scores than those in the control group. It has been noted that English is somewhat musical, and jazz music may be one way of assisting language learners to tune to the beat of English (Ilciukiene, 2005). Jazz chanting presents the natural language of English in a rhythmic and parallel way. Rhythm and intonation are two very important elements of language learning. Prosody of language is often ignored in favour of grammar and vocabulary. A student’s knowledge of language rhythm enhances their oral capacity as well as their ability to articulate in general. Jazz chanting aids ESL students in learning the timing of syllables. Another theory is that language rhythm acquisition may be the common learning denominator amongst ESL students (Ilciukiene, 2005). Jazz chanting is suitable to each other the language speaking stages (emergent, basic, CALP and NS). Ilciukiene’s study investigated the relationship between music and language, and the teaching of English rhythmic patterns using jazz. He wanted to observe the teacher’s concern for ESL student use of rhythm, to identify a relationship between English rhythm and music, and to establish a set of jazz chants that effectively teach English rhythm patterns to the ESL student. Set in Lithuania, Ilciukiene interviewed 100 teachers of English. He found that 15% were completely unaware of the importance of rhythmic patterns in language learning (Ilciukiene, 2005). However, the remaining 85% did report that rhythm was the dominant barrier to fluency for their ESL students. It appeared that students were failing to group syllables in a way that made communication effective. Further, the majority of the English teachers had themselves learnt English as a second language, and so were not confident in their own use of English rhythm. It appears that music and jazz chanting are ideal channels for imparting the rhythmic patterns of English that are necessary for effective communication. It is not clear from the literature the extent to which alternate forms of lesson presentation, such as song and instrument, influence language development and more general intelligence. However, it is evident that both rhythmic forms of delivering the curriculum are suited to all students, both NS and ESL of all stages. Conclusion It is evident that the learning of language is a universal process among human beings, and that across cultures, prior experience, knowledge as well as socio-cultural belief systems and personal values and attitudes toward learning, and towards English, will impact on the ability of a student to learn a language. The cultural background of any learner will shape their values, attitudes and beliefs about learning in general, as well as about learning another language (Lipjakova, 2003; Kindler, 2000). ‘Schema’ theory suggests that new concepts are developed in the mind by the linking of new information to existing networks of ideas” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1987, p. 232). Especially for language learning, it is essential that learners make the connections between new information and existing knowledge. Teachers can assist this process in the following ways (Juffs, 1998; METAS, 2000; Skutnabb- Kangas & Toukomaa, 1976); by re-structuring existing knowledge, and encouraging all students to verbalise what the already know; to encourage the all students to try to represent the ways their existing knowledge is structured(through graphic representations or other non-verbal means); by using strategies such as brainstorming a topic before new content is taught; having learners produce concept maps, semantic webs, and graphic organisers, structuring overviews or other diagrammatic representations of their current states of knowledge; and by carefully structuring new learning input, that is, by representing the structuring of new learning in a variety of verbal and non-verbal forms (introducing or reviewing new material, using non-textual representations of ideas such as with pictures, activities, charts, real objects, jazz chanting etc). What is essential is that the teacher makes a link between textual and non-textual representations of knowledge (Juffs, 1998). Across cultures, active, purposeful use of language not only aids learning but also helps to provide access to newly-learned items from within the wide range of communication strategies each individual possesses (Anton, 1999). Second language competence, including the level of literacy skill, is dependent on the following factors; the extent to which the first language is used (frequency); whom the student interacts with; as well as the situations and purposes the language is used for; the level of support for language development provided by parents, which in turn is dependant on the educational experiences of the family; for students who have recently immigrated, factors such as their age of arrival in the country of settlement and level of education they reached in their homeland apply; and whether the EAL students’ first language is maintained and developed through language courses in mainstream schools, ethnic schools or after-hours specialist schools for languages; the attitudes of the learner and their family to the maintenance of their first language, which is dependent on the importance placed on their language in their culture; it is also dependent on the attitudes of the people around the EAL student in regards to their peers and teachers at school; other important factors include the English language environment to which EAL students are exposed to, both within and outside the classroom. It is also now seen that it is very important to maintain and develop the first language for a number of other crucial reasons, including the maintenance of family, peer and community relationships, as well as continued cognitive development and growth in self-esteem and identity of the individual EAL student. The learning strategies presented above provide a brief outline of their suitability for ESL learning and language development. The strategies are able to support the ESL student by determining the context of the learning. Ideally, each of the activities is incorporated across the curriculum, and is used for small group or whole class work (Hernández, 2003). Hence, ESL students practice their language skills and knowledge application through peer interaction and peer support from those more proficient in the English language. To more fully benefit from the learning support strategies, parents/caregivers should be encouraged to take part in the activities throughout the school year. In class visits, or elements of the activities set as homework that is inclusive of parents/caregivers. Holistic support for ESL language development needs to occur within familiar everyday environments for the child – home, school and the playground. Additionally, each of the strategies is extremely flexible (i.e., having a range of visual aid mediums), and so can be tuned to individual student needs. This tailoring approach of resources and structures to suit the ESL student’s needs is a student-centred approach that enables the learner and task to ‘fit’. Classroom activities that reinforce the confidence of ESL pupil’s use of language, making of mistakes during communication, the ability to learn in general, and to overcome hurdles and to achieve. It is essential that educators, policy makers as well as parents/caregivers respect the diversity among students in the UK, and be aware that differences in learning styles exist, and require considered support and encouragement. The national curriculum for UK primary schools attempts to provide support structures and resources specifically for the ESL student. It is expected that minority ethnic pupils be recognised as having a range of needs which require specific additional support, so as to meet point 6 of the “Inclusion” section, of the National Curriculum (Department for Education and Skills [DFES], 2006). The National Curriculum stipulates that all teachers must take specific action to assist ESL students by contributing to the development of their spoken and written English, and by ensuring their access to the curriculum. This requires that a school construct teaching and learning strategies that are inclusive of the different levels of English amongst ESL students, and that implemented strategies account for the previous educational experiences of ESL students. There are numerous established teaching and support methods to enhance the literacy learning of ESL students. Underlying all the methods is the awareness that feelings, emotions and the student’s sense of self are critical to the language learning process. The development of these factors is essential to facilitate a student’s engagement in communication with others. The learning strategies presented here reinforce ESL student confidence, and provide learning experiences in an engaging, relevant and powerful way. References Anton, M. (1999). The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives on teacher-learner interaction in the second-language classroom. Modern Languages Journal, 81, 34-47. Candlin, C. N., & Mercer, N. (2001). English Language Teaching in its Social Context: A Reader. London: Routledge. Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1987). The cognitive academic language learning approach: A bridge to the mainstream. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 227-47. Cummins, J. (1986). Bilinguialism in Education. New York: Longman. Department for Education and Skills (DFES) (2006). National Curriculum. Retrieved September 10, 2006 from http://www.dfes.gov.uk/ Harding, E., & Riley, P. (1986). The Bilingual Handbook: A Handbook for Parents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hernández, A. (2003). Making content instruction accessible for English language learners. Retrieved September 9, 2006 from http://www.learner.org/channel/workshops/teachreading35/pdf/content_instruct_for_ell.pdf Ilciukiene, G. (2005). Teaching English rhythm through jazz chanting. Retrieved September 10, 2006 from http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=b28a6c7f-d148-4508-8b99-26ba4b37c0ac Juffs, A. (1998). Some effects of first language argument structure and morphosyntax on second language sentence processing. Second Language Research, 14(4), 406-424. Kanuka, H. (2005). An exploration into facilitating higher levels of learning in a text- based internet learning environment using diverse instructional strategies. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(3), http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue3/kanuka.html Kindler, A. L. (2002). Survey of the States’ limited English proficient students and available educational programs and services: 2000-2001 summary report. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/states/reports/seareports/0001/sea0001.pdf Koboyashi, M. (2003). The role of peer support in ESL students accomplishment of oral academic tasks. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(3). Lipjakova, E. (2003). Effective methods for teaching English conversation. 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Stott, N. (2002). Helping ESL students become better readers: Schema theory applications and limitations. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII(11). Retrieved September 10, 2006, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Stott-Schema.html Telematics for Teacher Training in ELT [TELT] (1999-2001). Use of audio-visual aids. Retrieved September 9, 2006 from http://www.telt.um.edu.my/6aids.html#6.1 Watson, C. E. (2005). Graphic organizers:Toward organization and complexity of student content knowledge. Unpublished Dissertation. Retrieved September 9th, 2006 from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-10032005- 163112/unrestricted/DISSERTATION-preliminarypages.pdf Yu Ren Dong, Y. R. (2002). Integrating language and content: How three biology teachers work with non-English speaking students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 5(1). Read More