Materialism as a Worldview - Essay Example

work] Materialism as a Worldview Since the ancient Greeks, the compelling search for the fundamentals of all existence hasled some to espouse idealism or a belief in unchanging conceptual universals, while others have held to physical materialism. For centuries the tension between these views of the world has stimulated intense philosophical inquiry. Today the debate remains as lively as ever. As popularly defined, materialism refers to the theory that physical matter is the only reality and that everything, including thought, feeling, mind, and will, can be explained in terms of matter and physical phenomena; or the attitude that physical well-being and worldly possessions constitute the greatest good and highest value in life; or a great or excessive regard for worldly concerns (American Heritage, 2000). Reducing the debate simply to materialism and idealism therefore, the materialist hypothesis is that all existence is an unbroken, material continuum from its origins in ancient Greece to the mind-brain materialism of the modern times (Vitzthum, 1995). Materialism as a worldview appears to be prevalent in society today. History of Materialism as a worldview Materialism began in the 18th century (McConnell, 2003). The leading scientists of that time suffered cognitive dissonance between the beliefs of the many religious sects which then existed along with their own scientific discoveries (McConnell, 2003). They relieved their discomfort by agreeing among themselves that religion was unnecessary. Unfortunately, the amorality of materialism was so attractive to lesser intellectuals, who lacked the status to question the leaders. The same was true to businessmen, who could use materialism to justify exorbitant profits that it has become a defining feature of the culture (McConnell, 2003). Materialism and its theories can be traced as far back as the poem, The Nature of Things, written in the first century B.C. by Lucretius ("Materialism: what matters," 2007) to the more recent research done by Richard Vitzthum (1996), An Affirmative History and Definition. The doctrine of materialism was formulated as early as the 4th century B.C. by Democritus, in whose system of atomism all phenomena are explained by atoms and their motions in space (Armstrong, 1984). Other early Greek teaching, such as that of Epicurus and Stoicism, also conceived of reality as material in its nature. The theory was later renewed in the 17th century by Pierre Gassendi and Thomas Hobbes, who believed that the sphere of consciousness essentially belongs to the corporeal world, or to the senses (Armstrong, 1984). Later, the investigations of John Locke were adapted to materialist positions by David Hartley and Joseph Priestley. They were a part of the materialist development of the 18th century strongly manifested in France, where the most extreme thought was that of Julien de La Mettrie. The culminating expression of materialist thought in this period was the Systme de la nature (1770), for which Baron d'Holbach is considered chiefly responsible (Armstrong, 1984). In Western civilization, materialism is the oldest philosophical tradition. It reached its full classical form in the atomism of Democritus and Epicurus in the 4th century B.C. Epicurus argued that reality consisted of invisible and indivisible particles of free-falling matter called atoms randomly colliding in the void. Through materialism, everything that happens is explained in terms of the law of nature (Armstrong, 1984). Overview of major beliefs and representative thinkers Materialism is a simple philosophy, having two principles: 1) There is no reality except that which can be defined in terms of the physical concepts of space and time; and 2) As individuals, we have no obligations to other persons except for those obligations that we accept for our own pleasure. This second principle follows from the first (McConnell, 2003). When people use the word "materialism" they usually have one of two definitions in mind. Philosophically speaking, materialism is the belief that everything that exists is either composed of matter or dependent upon it for its existence, hence "naturalism" is an equivalent term (Plummer, 2007). Atheist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins (2006) noted in his book, The God Delusion, that philosophers use "naturalist" as the opposite of "supernaturalist." Naturalists, according to Sire (2004), "See no God, no spirit, no life beyond the grave." The basic implication of naturalism is that God is dead. Materialism is also used to refer to an approach to life that places premium value on the acquisition of material goods for the purpose of enhancing comfort, status, or pleasure. McCallum & DeLashmutt (2001) define materialism as "a subtle and sophisticated worldview that defines identity, fulfillment, significance, and security in terms of economics" (p. 129). Materialism as a philosophy is held by those who maintain that existence is explainable solely in material terms, with no accounting of spirit or consciousness (Ramm, 1963). Individuals who hold to this belief see the universe as a huge device held together by pieces of matter functioning in subjection to naturalistic laws. Since materialism denies all concepts of creation, it relies on the theory of evolution to explain itself, making beliefs in materialism and evolution interdependent (Ramm, 1963). Signs. The signs of materialism include self-absorption (Fournier & Richins, 1991; Beatty, Kahle & Homer, 1991) to the exclusion of others (Mukerji, 1983) and a desire for immediate gratification (Lasch, 1984). In addition, possession comes to be valued over other goals (Daun, 1983) such as personal development, relationships with others, and the work ethic. The ascension of materialism as a central value may shape the nature of other values (Cheal, 1986). Material objects also represent success and status in contemporary culture (Dawson & Bamossy, 1990). Thus, materialists make use of tangible objects to signify success (Fournier & Richins, 1991, Belk, 1985). Kinds. The only well-known history of materialism is Friedrich Lange's (1905). But this work is badly dated and severely biased because Lange was a neo-Kantian and early fictionist hostile to materialism (Bunge, 2004). To avoid confusion and oversights, three broad kinds of materialism are proposed. Contemporary materialism is a family with three main members: physicalism or vulgar materialism; dialectical materialism, the Marxist philosophy; and emergent or modern materialism (Bunge, 2004). Physical. Physical materialism or vulgar materialism is radically reductionist. It states that everything is physical. Consequently, claims that although there are different levels of analysis or description, these have no counterparts in reality. Ancient Greek and Indian atomism, as well as the mechanistic worldview that dominated natural science between 1600 and 1900, have been the highlights of physicalism (Bunge, 2004). Dialectical. Dialectical materialism, crafted by Engles, Lenin, and a number of soviet philosophers, is a sort of synthesis of eighteenth century materialism which was mostly physicalist, and Hegel's dialectics. It has therefore the merits of the former and the absurdities of the latter. The main false thesis of dialectics is that everything is a unity of opposites, and that all changes derive from such 'contradictions' or 'struggles of opposites' (Bunge, 2004). Emergent. Finally, emergent or modern materialism avoids the oversimplifications of physicalism and the obscurities and sophistries of dialectics. It asserts that although every real existence is material, material things fall into at last five qualitatively different integrative levels: physical, chemical, biological, social and technical. Accordingly, the things in every level are composed of lower-level things, and possess emergent properties that their constituents lack However, it is still materialism (Bunge, 2004). Meanwhile, Simmer-Brown, as interviewed by Fisher (2006) named three kinds of materialism. She mentioned physical materialism, the materialism of speech, and what she called spiritual materialism. Physical materialism is accumulating stuff just because you can, and not for the purpose of giving it away. The materialism of speech, or "psychological materialism," is when one is constantly trying to improve his credentials, his career, and his livelihood for the purpose of ego-enhancement. "Spiritual materialism" is using spirituality to enhance personal ego, whether it is in order to be a kind of prominent teacher with lots of students, building an incredible monastery, going away and performing ceremonies for money. Strengths of materialism Researchers explain that material objects often serve functional roles and are necessary in our every day lives (Belk 1985. In McConnell, 2003). Materialism has been found to serve as a coping mechanism by helping to reduce or relieve stress related to painful life transitions. It diverts our attention to other alternate activities (Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980. In McConnell, 2003). Accordingly, if materialism helps one deal with bad situations, then it is not such a bad thing. Materialism has been found to help people deal with life and problems and help them escape from all the issues of the real world. Just like a drug, the material objects, luxury, and all the finer things bring people happiness and fulfilment. Materialism has been defined as the theory or doctrine that physical well-being and worldly possessions constitute the greatest good and highest value in life (Heritage Dictionary, 3rd Ed.) Materialism as a worldview contributes to knowledge in that it is that which opposes idealism and by it, helps to explain what it is not and what its opponent is. Keith Ward (1996) said that "new materialism" argues that science and religious belief are incompatible. What most atheists do believe is that although there is only one kind of stuff in the universe and it is physical, out of this stuff comes minds, beauty, emotions, moral values - in short the full gamut of phenomena that gives richness to human life (p.13,14). Materialism is also used to refer to an approach to life that places premium value on the acquisition of material goods for the purpose of enhancing comfort, status, and pleasure. As such, it presents the dark side of human nature needful of understanding the total man. McCallum & DeLashmutt (2001) define materialism as "a subtle and sophisticated worldview that defines identity, fulfilment, significance, and security in terms of economics" (p.129). As a worldview, therefore, materialism has its inconsistencies in the perspective Christian thinking. Weaknesses/inconsistencies of materialism Dehumanizing. Materialism is dehumanizing and destructive. People look to possessions to bring them happiness. They then use these possessions to make things and people behave or respond the way they desire. People have become so successful at fabricating and manipulating the world that they have come to believe that altering surroundings is the way to solve all problems. People go through life contemplating that inner well-being depends on what they have or what they do. Due to these assumptions, materialism now carries the status that people's religion, occupations, and bloodlines used to carry (Twitchell, 1999. In McConnell, 2003). Aethestic. Materialism has been atheistic. This is a consequence of its premises. The belief that immaterial things do not exist, lead to the belief that there is no God. If they were to be referenced to, they would be described strictly in the terms of nature. Naturalists as materialists deny the existence of God (Sire, 2004). Opposed to the spiritual. Materialism, at its simpler level, involves the focus on material "things" as opposed to that which is spiritual or intellectual in nature. People live in a world surrounded by and composed of matter. It is natural, therefore, that people may become distracted from spiritual or intellectual pursuits by material possessions, but this is frequently where problems occur. They can become obsessed by a desire to obtain them, or simply frustrated by the need to maintain them. Materialism is considered an antichristian philosophy, just like atheism and positivism are (Ramm, 1963). Wrongly linked to happiness. Materialism has been associated with self-centeredness (Fromm, 1976). Self-centered qualities include alienation and indifference, narcissism, and a lack of concern for others (Fournier & Richins, 1991. In "Materialism," 2007), as well as detachment from personal relationships (Beatty, Kahle & Homer, 1991. In McConnell, 2003). In the link between consumption and happiness, Mick, DeMoss & Faber proposed that excessive consumption of therapeutic self-gifts is a manifestation of the materialistic belief. (Plummer, 2007). Conclusion While naturalism denies that God exists, nihilism claims that not only is there no God, no spirit, but also that there are no moral values. In existentialism, the burden is placed on humans to create themselves. Accordingly, the authentic person must revolt against the alien, absurd objective world and create value (Sire, 2004). For the concept of "New Age," Liselotte Frisk (2005) argues that it should be rejected altogether, and instead the focus should be on the dichotomy of institutionalised religion and uninstitutionalised or popular religion. With Monism as worldview, the main road to oneness requires quiet and solitude, enhanced by chanting an intellectually contentless word such as "Om." Finally, in Postmodernism, the social good is whatever those who wield power in society choose to make it. These worldviews stray away from the basic tenets of Christian Theism of an infinite God, transcendent and immanent, omniscient, sovereign and good, in whose image humans are created, transcending the cosmos, just as materialism does (Sire, 2004). As a worldview, materialism is a widely held system of thought that explains the nature of the world as entirely dependent on matter, the fundamental and final reality beyond which nothing need be sought. Certain periods in history, usually those associated with scientific advance, are marked by strong materialistic tendencies (Armstrong, 1984). Materialism leads people to produce things that no one truly needs and encourages short cuts in the name of financial expediency. It promotes short-sightedness and blinkered thinking. As such, some people develop negative qualities such as greediness, self-centeredness, possessiveness, and general life dissatisfaction (Belk, 1985; Richins & Dawson, 1992. In McConnell, 2003). Because of being materialistic, people begin caring less for the Earth than they do for their own well-being which brings them in competition with nature. They then "abuse" surroundings, environment, other people, and even themselves in their search for greater life satisfaction. The main exploitation of the world, however, is in the attitudes and values that come from believing that inner well-being is dependent upon what people have or what they do. Money, power, and other things that people often blame are not the cause at all; they are simply symptoms of a deeper underlying error in people's thinking. While it is impossible to exist completely without material possessions, materialism, should not, however, be the people's total way of life. References Armstrong, D. (1984). 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