Organizational Behavior - Assignment Example

Answer Dr. Pavlov pioneered modern psychology to its current status in scientific thought. His concepts are the standard application utilized today to study human psyche. Dr. Pavlov's important discoveries included concepts such as conditioning. It can be defined as a process that establishes a neurological link between reflex and stimuli that acts as its trigger through constant reinforcement, stimuli that was neutral before the reinforcement. Examples of such conditioning are noticed amongst internet users who periodically check e-mails when logged to the web. "Classical conditioning is about a stimulus and a response." 1 Pavlov's early capacity for hard work was conditioning. Elaborating on the previous example, the activity of periodically checking e-mails when surfing the web without conscious action is a habit reinforced to the neutral pathway by providing a stimuli (web) with an elicited action (checking e-mail), and reinforcing it till the stimuli triggers the elicited behavior into instant action. Reinforcement means repeating a set pattern of actions, considering them pleasurable when doing so and doing it enough times for the body to bypass conscious evaluation of action and respond immediately with the set pattern that is linked to a stimuli. Pavlov's father was reinforcing him for priesthood after his accident. Athletes use reinforcement to prepare themselves, repeating the motions of their particular sport, enjoying the process even when they seem to be in physical plan and use repetition till the execution of the desire motion becomes second nature, this is reinforcement. Extinction is best explained like this. Constant exposure to a stimulus lowers its perceptible threat, given a new element is not introduced. Dr. Pavlov's indifference towards the danger of offending Stalin, who uncharacteristically didn't respond, explains extinction. The feeling of being annihilated is intense when the stimulus is new, but with constant exposure, the threat reduces and we feel safer. This is how children evolve from the fear of the boogeyman. With constant exposure to darkness (provided no one is trying to scare them), boogeyman does not feel so threatening anymore. The Pavlovian concept of discrimination is based on how a stimulus is evaluated and responded to, the response can be conditioned based on past experiences or unconditioned due to uncertainty on evaluating a new stimuli that has been introduced. Dr. Pavlov reprimanding his assistant for being late to the laboratory despite pitched battles taking place on the streets shows how he discriminated the situation differently from those around him. The most common examples of discrimination can be seen among people who have different preferences in music genres. An individual who prefers classical music like that of Mozart and Beethoven, discriminates the current hip hop scene very differently from one who lives off on such kind of music. Discrimination is based upon past conditioning and acquired response, but it can and does change over a period of time. Generalization, as the name suggests, is the perceptual experience of an uncommon situation, expressed through evaluation with past experiences. Dr. Pavlov's indifference to practicalities like taking care of his finances or personal safety, irrespective of penury or losing his son or on becoming a Nobel Prize winner and writing angry letters to Stalin, display his generalization towards practical matters. Most prominent generalizations are seen on television networks covering natural disasters like hurricanes. Before a hurricane hits shore, certain patterns are detectable, based on this predictions are made. Whenever a similar pattern emerges, a call for cover against hurricanes is called for; sometimes it is a false alarm. But generalizations have been made based on past data, assuming that when A = C, the chances of C happening when A manifests itself is highly probable, this is generalizing, the media conglomerates have understood this concept well and use it periodically and effectively. Not all reflexes are inherent, some have been developed mixed with existing one, and this new reflex is known as high order conditioning. These are environment based, where reflexes already embedded are developed to respond to a new stimulus. A person lost at sea and who escaped drowning may trigger hydrophobia based on the sights and smell of the coast or the sea shore. This fear triggered by the olfactory sense is high order conditioning. Pavlovian concepts have become the foundations of many theories of learning because these concepts are applied science. Explicitly stating the hedonistic nature of man, who moves towards pleasure and avoids pain. This can be measured in laboratory experiments, real environment and the data acquired is measurable, objective, establishes definite principles and can be repeated with precision. It is not surprising at all that Pavlovian concepts are as true today as they were when discovered and refined by Dr. Pavlov. Answer 2: Blauner "developed an 'inverted U-curve', which plotted the position of the worker and the degree of skill and involvement or alienation as industrialization progressed, the type of technology used and the degree of control by the worker." 2 He classified technology into four type namely: "Craft technology", 3 "machine-minding technology", 4 "assembly-line technology" 5 and "continuous-process technology".6 According to Blauner when explaining the rationale behind technology classification and the sense of alienation that developed amongst the workers, he revealed stage one as characterized by the "printing industry" 7, the most labor intensive. Production was dependent on the efforts of manual labor, the method of operation not standardized and the mechanized tools primitive; more like the tools of a craftsman rather than a representation of an automated industry. However, the workers felt a sense of "powerlessness" 8, as the value of a craftsman was being eroded and a sense of structure where workers need to work similarly was being implemented. The "textile industry" 9 characterized stage two of "machine-minding technology" 10, as dependence on the personal skills of the labor employed became redundant and heavy mechanization of the production process ensured that labors employed only watched the machine performing the function of production. The alienation amongst workers increased from this stage as they perceived their work as "meaningless" 11, with their roles reversed, the workers beings the tools and the tools now conferred as the new workers. The "motor-car industry" 12 ushered in stage three and was placed on top of the U curve, introducing "assembly-line technology" 13 with "highly structured work, done by workers who had the least control over any part of the job, as they were determined by the technology, in terms of how, when and at what pace they carried out the work." 14 This brought about "social alienation" 15 because the entire fabric of society and the traditional worker roles had been completely revamped. New roles for workers were imposed, as never before in history, creating a new social order, where man became subservient to machines. Blauner claims the final stage of "continuous-process technology" 16 as characterized by "industrial chemical industry" 17 where workers participation in the direct production process became meaningless. "Here, workers would be skilled, much more comfortable in their work, and monitoring rather than being monitored by their machines." 18 This is currently the kind alienation we see with the workforce today, that of "self-estrangement" 19. This form of alienation is not restricted only to the work place or the work force anymore, but has now permeated all facets of society. From Blauner's theory we can observe that the sense of alienation felt by the workforce is directly proportional to the level of technology introduced. In the first stage, the identity of the worker as a craftsman was eroded by trying to achieve a measurable standard of output. In the second stage, the worker was meaningless and machines primary. In the third stage, we see an evolution in the profile of the worker but a sense of identity of self through work has been replaced by new identity based on one's work involved with the machines. The final stage completes this new identity, where a worker is the product of his job profile rather than the other way. The sense of alienation too has grown, starting from an individual to comprising the entire society. Self-realization through work, as a concept and principle has been eradicated. Answer 3: Fred E. Fiedler developed a theory on leadership style based on individual personality, enunciating it as unchangeable. For this, he established an index called the "least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale". 20 Here, the leader states the least likeable coworker throughout one's career and measures that coworker on a scale of 1 - 8 between "Unfriendly (1) -Friendly (8)", 21 "Uncooperative (1) - Cooperative (8)", 22 "Hostile (1) - Supportive (8)" 23 and "Guarded (1) - Open (8)". 24 on the variables of this test, those who scored a higher LPC were categorized as "human relations orientation" 25 and those with a low LPC as "task orientation". 26 Leaders who spoke well of unfavorable coworker were classified into the former category and those who spoke unfavorably into the latter. Fiedler explained his leadership style by identifying the trait of the leader as one who derives satisfaction by forging human relations and giving that prominence over task or completely focuses on the job, considering bonding with coworkers as unnecessary. Another dimension to this theory was added by introducing "environment variable" 27 i.e. how conducive is the environment for the leader to be effective and identified three variables that influence the environment, namely: (1) "leader-member" 28 (2) "Task structure" 29 and (3) "Position power". 30 In (1) the leader is judged on his likeability by other members, forming bonds enhances the leader's influence. In (2) the more defined the task of the coworker, the more influence a leader has and in (3) the more defined the authority of the leader to "hire and fire", 31 to "disciple and reward" 32, the more power he possesses over others. Based on these variables 8 leadership style were established with the relation building style more effective in three compared to the five that completely focused on the job. The latter considered more suitable for unfavorable situations like an emergency. The eight leadership style defined by Fiedler are "Good -- Structured -- Strong -- Task Orientation" 33, "Good -- Structured -- Weak -- Task Orientation" 34, "Good -- Unstructured -- Strong -- Task Orientation" 35, "Good -- Unstructured -- Weak - Consideration" 36, "Poor -- Structured -- Strong - Consideration" 37, "Poor -- Structured -- Weak - Consideration" 38, "Poor -- Unstructured -- Strong -- Task Orientation" 39, "Poor -- Unstructured -- Weak -- Task Orientation".40 Developing on this, Ohio State Researchers, Hersey and Blanchard identified the four styles of leadership for their 'high-probability' model: "S1: Telling / Directing - High task focus, low relationship focus" 41, authoritative leadership that dictates and delegates work and supervises the followers; "S2: Selling/ Coaching - High task focus, high relationship focus" 42, a participative model where the leader arrives at a decision after achieving a consensus with followers; "S3: Participating / Supporting - Low task focus, low relationship focus" 43, the leader acts as a facilitator with executive decision resting with the followers and "S4: Delegating / Observing - Low task focus, low relationship focus" 44, the followers decided the role of the leader, who has minimum participation. Hersey and Blanchard assert that a perfect style of leadership is a misnomer and each style of leadership is effective under different condition. Emphasizing on "situational leadership" 45, where the environment and the workers influence the kind of leadership model that should be adopted. Hersey and Blanchard place equal emphasis on the followers to determine the leadership and have designed quadrants for that, which is: "D4 - High competence, High commitment" 46, "D3 - High competence, Variable commitment" 47, "D2 - Some competence, Low commitment" 48, "D1 - Low competence, High commitment" 49. Under this model, it is the type and the tasks assigned to employees that determines leadership, assuming that the employees have reached a state of maturity to work under such a plan. The major drawback of this model is that is does not analyze the complexity of an organization when matching quadrants, it does not recognize situations that don't match the functionality and flow already defined. Nevertheless, this model is easy to implement and considers more variables for facilitating leader and follower harmony and dynamics than other established models. Quoting Blanchard and Hersey "Leadership Style (S1-S4) of the leader must correspond to Development level (D1-D4) of the follower - and it's the leader who adapts." 50 Answer 4: Raymond Cattell refined Spearman's concept of general intelligence (Spearman's G) by introducing fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc). Fluid intelligence is abstract intelligence that one is inherently born with. It is equipped to deal with using reason to solve problems, pattern recognition and in solving abstract problems such as algebra. Gf is stable and cannot be enhanced. Crystallized intelligence involves long-term memory and is concerned with verbal ability and skills as well as acquired knowledge. It relatively remains stable across the years and can be enhanced by improving one's vocabulary and through learning. Furthering the research of Raymond Cattell developed "a new empirically derived model commonly referred to as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities (CHC theory)." 51 This theory is an amalgamation of three theories, the "Gf-Gc theory" of both Cattell and Horn as well as the "Three-Stratum theory" 52 of Carroll. The four new categories of cognitive ability are: "visual-spatial processing (Gv)" 53, they measure the spatial abilities of an individual, moving beyond quantitative and verbal measurements. Gv represents the cognitive ability to visualize, which includes 'insight' and other visual processes by which one 'pictures it' in 3D, they are mapped differently in the neurological network. Engineers, Architects, Industrial designers are professionals who use this cognitive ability extensively in their field of activity. "Ga" 54 represents the auditory cognitive ability; after technological developments and gaining interest is auditory perceptions it was brought in focus. Auditory cognitive ability emphasizes on sound, pitch, tone, rhythm as a measure. Music and speech is prominent field of study, as many tests revealed a link between classical music and increased numerical abilities, and the relationship between reading and auditory cognitive skill established unique processing skills that are tapped into. The third category is that of "Gsm" 55, segregating and classifying memory as "memory span" 56 or "working memory". 57 It identifies how information is processed and memory is stored. Gf-Gc intelligence use different memory slots. The processing mode of both short and long term memory is based on cognition i.e. information gathering through auditory, visual-spatial way and given the brain physiology. Memory banks sort out data they receive, they either etch it permanently; that can be recalled later on or are sheltered in temporary modules for the current task at hand and to be discarded later. The last category is that of "Gc" 58, a contemporary measure of cognitive ability and a derivate of earlier mentioned intelligence structures. This kind of intelligence is about abstract intelligence based on solving problems associated vocabulary centered on expertise and professions, and with knowledge that is specialized and based on domain expertise. This was the latest entrant because Gf did not consider this kind vocabulary as part of the regular and natural set-up. Research on cognitive ability is a dynamic process as rapid advancements in applied science introduce new technologies. As a result of introduction of new technologies, recent methodologies are employed that can capture variable data, making hypothetical theories redundant. Most recent developments on cognitive ability are being conducted on the processing speed by which the brain captures information. However, Spearman's G, though contradicted many times, still serves as a model that facilitates modern research on cognitive ability. Answer 5: Learning in the context of organizational behavior deviates from what is considered as natural learning since learning here is within pre-defined acceptable patterns of behavior called culture, even when the principles involved in learning are the same. Every organization has an objective and a mission to which it owes its existence; there are defined rules and values, this provides a framework, mostly hierarchical and is called the system. When we discuss about learning in the given context, it is meant learning within the culture and the system. "Operant conditioning" 59 is the medium of learning where a desired behavior to stimuli is reinforced. The desired behavior may not be a natural reflex, but it is a high order conditioning, where a pre-defined behavior based on culture is reinforced to given stimuli, that are generally categorized. "Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with what happens after a response. This reinforcement can operate positively or negatively". 60 Explicating this further, what gets learned are determined by "effort-reward ratio". 61 Behaviors that are rewarded are learned faster and those that are not get discarded. This differs from natural learning, where there is no evaluation of response classified as right or wrong, all behaviors are acceptable since there is only a stimulus and a reflex. We can state that what is called learning at the workplace is "behavior modification". 62 Learning in the stated context is facilitated through variables called "scheduled reinforcements". These are: "Fixed ratio schedule" 63, concerned with acquiring behavior for daily activities at the workplace like activities involved in production, manufacturing etc. "Variable ratio schedule" 64, involves learning behaviors for activities that occur periodically e.g. marketing events, fund-raising etc. "Fixed interval schedule" 65 is another variable modifying behaviors, its pattern is similar to fixed ratio, the differentiating factor is time duration. This variable involves learning activities that take place regularly but for a short duration. Workings part-time, hourly or weekly are most probable examples. The last variable is "Variable interval schedule" 66, these are behaviors that are not reinforced and are generally associated with time spent considered as unproductive, like, waiting for the boss, waiting for someone else to finish their work, so you can start yours. Many organizations have recognized learning and have instituted a new module called knowledge management into the organization. Such models map employees and ascertain and develop the most efficient behavior for the organization and then replicate such models that can be implanted into those whose current behavior is found unsuitable and learning disable to the structure of the organization. This is done through corporate training and development programs, based on scheduled reinforcements, with a module development for all organizational functions. Currently, learning within the context of organizational behavior is a debatable topic as behavior modification does not constitute as true learning. Such kind of learning is akin to developing artificial intelligence, where a person is programmed for an environment and situations. 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(2008) Cattell-Horn-Carroll CHC (Gf-Gc) Theory: Past, Present and Future. 28 November 2003. [Online]. Available from: http://www.iapsych.com/CHCPP/A.InternalCHCstructuralextensions.html#Topic11 [Accessed 7 September 2008] 59. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 60. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 61. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 62. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 63. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 64. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 65. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] 66. Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] References Answer 1 The Spanish Journal of Psychology (2003) Signalization and Stimulus - Substitution in Pavlov's Theory of Conditioning [online]. Available from: http://www.ucm.es/info/Psi/docs/journal/v6_n2_2003/art168.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] Gabriel, M. and Moore, J. Eds., (1990) Foundations of Adaptive Networks. Learning and Computational Neuroscience, pp.497-537. MIT Press. [Online]. Available from: http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/sutton/papers/sutton-barto-90.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] Parmly Hearing Institute (n.d.). Stimulus Generalization and the Sense of Hearing in Goldfish [online]. Available from: http://www.parmly.luc.edu/parmly/stimgendata.html [Accessed 7 September 2008] Creed, Tom. (2008) CBS/SJU Page: Pavlovian Conditioning. June 11, 1998. Available from: http://employees.csbsju.edu/tcreed/pb/pavcon.html [Accessed 7 September 2008] Answer 2 Crowther, David. And Green, Miriam. (2004) Optimistic Approaches. Organizational Theory, p.71. London: CIPD. Answer 3 Antoine, Patrich (n.d.). Fiedler's Contingency Theory of Leadership. [Online]. Available from: http://www.stfrancis.edu/ba/ghkickul/stuwebs/btopics/works/Fied.htm [Accessed 7 September 2008] 12 Manage. (2008) Situational Leadership: Blanchard Hersey. 29 August 2008. Available from: http://www.12manage.com/methods_blanchard_situational_leadership.html [Accessed 7 September 2008] Secondary Reference Bedeian, Arthur G., and William F. Gleuck. Management: Third Edition. Chicago: Dreyden Press, 1983. Dunham, Randall B. Organizational Behavior. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1984. Gannon, Martin J. Management: An Integrated Framework. Boston: Little, Brown, 1982. Answer 4 Wikipedia (n.d.).Factor Analysis. [Online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis [Accessed 7 September 2008] Wikipedia (n.d.).Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence. [Online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence [Accessed 7 September 2008] Wikipedia (n.d.).CHC Theory. [Online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHC_Theory [Accessed 7 September 2008] Wikipedia (n.d.).CHC Theory. [Online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHC_Theory [Accessed 7 September 2008] Institute for Applied Psychometrics, LLC. (2008) Cattell-Horn-Carroll CHC (Gf-Gc) Theory: Past, Present and Future. 28 November 2003. [Online]. Available from: http://www.iapsych.com/CHCPP/A.InternalCHCstructuralextensions.html#Topic11 [Accessed 7 September 2008] Secondary Reference Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lohman, D. (1996). Spatial ability and g. In P. T. I. Dennis ((Eds.)), Human abilities: Their nature and measurement (pp. 97-116). Stankov, L. (1994). The complexity effect phenomenon is an epiphenomenon of age-related fluid intelligence decline. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(2), 265-288. Hirsh, I. J., & Watson, C. S. (1996). Auditory psychophysics and perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 461-484. Anvari, S. H., Trainor, L. J., Woodside, J., & Levy, B. A. (2002). Relations among musical skills, phonological processing, and early reading ability in preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 127. Answer 5 Oxford University Press. (2008) Online Resource Centre: Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organization Behaviour: 4e: Answer outlines for end of chapter 1 questions: Chapter 01. [Online]. Available from: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/answers/answers_ch01.pdf [Accessed 7 September 2008] Read More