Modernity versus Westernization - Essay Example

I. Introduction A. Modernity versus Westernization Modernity is the concept by which there is a discontinuation of the past from the present. This discontinuity arises from social and cultural changes which occur through progress or decline. The premise is life in the present is different from life in the past. This is a view held globally and clashes with tradition which stipulates that the present is a continuation of the behaviour and events of the past and continue to be repeated. Modernity is viewed as a problem since it challenges and replaces the traditional way of life. It results in alternatives and unmanageable changes and that the present is merely a period of transition and is not directed towards a specific future goal. The changes happening at the present and in which will happen in the future are seen as products of forces beyond our control. Modernity presents a vast selection of alternatives such as in lifestyle and historical possibilities. In contrast, traditional culture offers the present a certain number of alternatives. The proliferation of alternatives is often seen as a threat to tradition and efforts are made to limit these alternatives. Westernisation is a form of modernity. There is discontinuity between the past and the present. However, there occurs a specific phenomenon in westernisation wherein traditional societies come under the influence of western culture. Western culture permeates and influences industry, technology, politics, law, economy, lifestyle, values, religion, and almost every niche and aspect of society. It had accelerated its influence throughout the world these past few centuries. It is related to the process of acculturation wherein changes happen within a society or culture when two different groups come into constant and direct contact with each other. The result are changes in the cultural patterns of one or both groups. In the case of westernisation, the changes in cultural patterns occurs in native societies as they come into contact with western cultures and are exposed to their influences. B. Religion and social movements Many studies have shown that religion helps to mobilize resources for groups and organizations that are engaged in democratic movements or safeguard the interests of marginalized sectors. It provides much needed social capital and democratic skills that are requisites in democratic participation. As political alternatives and political discussions happen in civil society, religion provides sustaining support to it. Christian Smith's "disruptive religion" takes notice of the "religious assets for activism", many being cultural assets. His work shows that religion is important in social protest. His study on U.S. religious resistance to counterinsurgency activities in Central America gives insight on the moral outrage which served as the basis for "insurgent consciousness". Smith showed how certain individuals were made receptive to mobilization with religion moulding their sensibilities such that their violation results in outrage. Religious networks also made people "subjectively engageable" to mobilization. Smith sees people as moral beings who try to create their lives out of external tensions and divisions (Wood 1995). Many of the changes that have occurred worldwide these past four decades can be attributed to or in part effected by religion. Many religious leaders have not only served as proponents or initiators, but have paid dearly with their lives. Religious nationalism has become active these recent decades, connecting religious convictions with the population's political and economic destiny. Many nationalist movements have incorporated the revival of traditionalist religious doctrines in their national identity and leadership. Among the strongest forces in religiously influenced social movements is Islamic nationalism which has influenced both national and international politics. The encroachment of western influence into the Muslim world during the 19th century spurred movements seeking the restoration of Islam to its original and pure form. Fundamentalists have gained strong footholds in the past two decades, spreading their influence over the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia. Islamic fundamentalism is a product of the resistance against the West, and the desire to re-establish traditional doctrines, cultures and ideas (Giddens et al 2003). C. Nationalism and Social Movements It was during the 19th century that nationalism became widespread, manifested as movements toward national unification and independence. It took hold in Europe, especially Germany, during the Napoleonic Wars as resistance to French occupation. However, German nationalism during this period was conservative and restricted by tradition, rather than liberal and universal. The latter part of the 19th century witnessed strong nationalist movements among countries under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, as well as, Ireland under the British and Poland under Russia. However, nationalism became increasingly identified with conservative elements and clashed with new ideologies such as socialism. Nationalist sentiments among nation-states turned to the acquisition of territory and prestige which led them to imperial adventurism. Nationalism had much to do with the outbreak of World War I. The defeat of the Axis powers after the Great War also saw the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. Many of their former territories became independent nations through treaties after the war, and the Paris Peace Conference firmly placed the principle of national self-determination and equality among nations (Columbia Encyclopedia). II. Theories A. Pareto Pareto efficiency is an important concept in economics. The basic premise is that a situation is Pareto efficient if there is no manner by which resources or wealth can be distributed to make one person better off without making anyone else worse off. In general, society would always be in agreement with Pareto efficiency and should avoid conditions which are non-Pareto efficient. This means that society would agree that things should be done such that a person can become better off without hurting or depriving others. Pareto's concept provides a means by which economic outcomes could be compared. Its weakness lies in that there may be numerous efficient outcomes and the Pareto test does not tell us how to choose among them. It helps economists identify inefficient situations and allows them to design policies, structures and mechanisms which would promote efficiency. It is considered a Pareto improvement when a policy or action makes one better off without hurting anyone else (Wilcoxen 2004). Pareto efficiency is not related to equity. Wealth accumulated by one person, when distributed to others, would be non-Pareto efficient since the gain of others would find the original owner of wealth worse off. B. Max Weber 1. Role of religion- ideas in social movements According to Weber, religion can be a source of social change and acts upon it as an independent variable. In his work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber notes the relationship between Protestantism and success in business. He links these with what he considers as the "spirit of capitalism", derived from the writings of Benjamin Franklin, which he considers as the purest example of the spirit. He points out the work ethic which observes that any time not used for actually making money is wasted time. This work ethic is similar to what Martin Luther calls "vocation", and is a specific characteristic of western capitalism. The popularization of the idea of "vocation" has brought religious life out of the places of worship and into the communities or in "the world". Another driving force in this work ethic is the Calvinist concept of predestination, which stipulates that: "(a) the elect are saved and everyone else is damned, (b) God has selected the chosen even before their birth and humanity has no way of knowing who will be saved, and (c) salvation cannot be earned, for if it could be, humanity would have a kind of power over God" (Udis-Kessler 2001). If one is predestined even before birth to either be saved or damned, then the Calvinists were perhaps placed in a gloomy predicament. However, Weber tied this up with the doctrine that individuals should be involved in the ascetic regulation of a person's life and striving for worldly success, to prove himself to God. The aim is not to attain salvation but to consider that one had already been predestined to have it, and should live his life accordingly to deserve it. Through his work, Weber proved that as an independent institution, religion has an impact on economic institutions. 2. Role of Authority - Bureaucracy Rationalized or legal authority has found the most acceptance in the modern industrialized period. In its purest form, it is called bureaucracy, which to Weber represents the modern world. He characterizes legal authority as impersonal in nature, wherein allegiances are owed to the office occupied by a person owing to that individual's competence, training or knowledge. It has nothing to do with personal relationships or norms borne of tradition. Those who occupy positions of authority also follow the same social norms. There is codification of norms which are based on expedience or rational values. In real life, tradition has a great influence in the codification of norms and they often have less to do with rationality or expediency, and more with customs and traditions. In an ideal situation, norms should promote the goals of the group. Thirdly, legal authorities are not absolute in the sense that they do not have the legitimacy to regulate every aspect in the behaviour of an individual. This means that a government official has the legitimacy to regulate behaviour pertaining to affairs of state, but not people on how to pray or worship. 3. Legitimacy According to Weber, legitimacy has four sources. Tradition gives validity since it upholds that which has always been. Time-tested beliefs and practices have sustained societies through generations. Affectual such as emotional faith also give validity because these are newly revealed or serve as examples. Value-rational faith is a source which has been deduced as an absolute. Positive enactment is also a source of legitimacy because it is held as legal. Legality in this sense is legitimate because it involves the mutual and voluntary agreement of concerned parties. Legal sources are imposed by authorities which are upheld as legitimate and therefore are deserving of compliance. For communities which are divided by vast differences or conflicts, the first three sources may be weak bases for legitimacy or may have limited grounds to offer legitimacy. In such conditions, it is helpful to subscribe to internationally recognized legal norms, especially when tradition, affect and faith cannot provide the necessary legitimacy. Weber stipulates that the most common form of legitimacy is based on legality. C. Trimberger 1. In cases with no popular support-military needed - unified ideology - support of bureaucracy The influence and perspective of the military can permeate into the deepest recesses of a society, even if the military is entirely subordinate to civilian authority. This had been the phenomenon with industrialised countries since the Second World War. Military spending during peacetime has provided the justification and impetus for state intervention into economies, with the objective of directing industrial and professional activities towards military prerogatives. Bureaucracy is seen as a pillar upon which wars are based. This is because bureaucracy maintains elite power. It marginalizes or prevents the ascendance of self-reliant and non-heirarchal forms of human activity and interaction. The military in itself is hierarchal in form and structure. It serves as a model for bureaucracy. It is closely connected with both the state and the bureaucracy which are both roots of war. It is also closely connected with patriarchy and science and technology. In Revolution From Above, Trimberger cited several situations wherein military elites initiated revolutions by acting as state administrators. She cited Japan (1868), Turkey (1920s), Egypt (1952)), and Peru (since 1968). Several conditions have to be present so that revolutions can be initiated by the top members of the military. There must be politicisation of the military and they should be unified. Politicisation of the military should result in the unification of their ideology. Likewise, the military should be independent of the class which controls production. Military-initiated revolutions from above are reactions to nationalist movements which emanate from the grassroots which are often instigated to end national humiliation from foreign powers. The internationally community must also have the impetus and create the opportunities for greater national autonomy for such a revolution to succeed. It is necessary for both the military and the state to be highly bureaucratised for revolutions from above to happen. The military implement their course of action to realize conditions conducive to successful economic development which have been compromised or are lagging because of conservatism of the nation's leadership (Martin 1984). D. Huntington 1. Revolution occurs in cases where political processes and economic development lag behind social changes Huntington noted that reformers such as Mustapha Kemal, John F. Kennedy and Latin American leaders after World War II were able to successfully implement social change to bring about effective results. He also noted that reform can at times bring about instability and cause revolutions. He wrote that governments which are pluralistic and nations with weak central governments often have difficulty in completing reforms. He also mentioned that the urban elite also requires reform to expand popular participation. He mentioned that the urban middle class will not be contented with reforms but will use them to demand more rights. In relation to the urban elite is the peasantry, which is generally dissatisfied with the elite of the cities and the policies of a central government. Reforms are used to appease the peasantry to keep them from disruptive activities. Huntington urges a political organization that deviates from the feudal and dynastic systems. Political interests should be funnelled towards a political party framework. There should be a "horizontal integration of communal groups and a vertical assimilation of social/economic classes." Political instability results once these political interests are not represented in the competition between political parties. A state with no party is associated by Huntington with traditional society and its values. Institutions are instrumental in addressing issues about collective action. Strength is not derived from sheer number of political parties, but on the individual strengths of opposition parties and their ability to coordinate. The opposition parties must be able to polarize, institutionalise and then expand. Huntington also pointed out that the urban/rural divide should be narrowed, and rural areas must be mobilized to prevent abrupt changes like military coups and revolutions. Rural interests must be incorporated into the political system by "ruralizing elections". E. Charles Tilly 1. Contender Tilly's Polity Model consist of four elements: government, which is the organization that controls the principal means of coercion; contender, which applies its pool of resources to influence the government; polity, which is the collective action of the members and the government; and, coalition, which the tendency of a group of contenders to coordinate their collective action. Tilly also uses the Mobilization Model which consists of: interests, the shared gains and losses likely to happen to one population because of its interaction with another population; organization, or the unifying structure and level of identification among members of a group or a population; mobilization, or the aggrupation of resources under the control of the contender; collective action, which is the scope of a contender's joint action to meet its goals; opportunity, which is composed of power, repression and threat/opportunity. 2. Revolution is only possible when powerful groups press claims There are always to contenders to power, may they be groups or individuals. Repression is achieved if one group is able to raise the cost of collective action for another group. Lowering the other group's cost is called facilitation. For governments, raising the cost of mobilization is a more effective repressive measure than raising the cost for collective action. If one party's interest is in conflict with the interests of other parties, power is then the extent by which the interest of the first party prevails over those of the other parties. The more powerful a party, the less susceptible it is to repression. It becomes effective if it is able to promote its agenda and exercise its power. It becomes an efficient party when it is able to acquire large returns for every unit of energy and resource it expends. To further its interests and ensure its survival, a party must be able to maintain minimum levels of power-effectiveness and power-efficiency. "A powerful group can reduce threats or take advantage of opportunities compared to less powerful groups" (Tilly 1978). F. Barrington Moore 1. Certain groups immune from power of ruler According to Moore, the development of democracies is a long and incomplete effort to achieve three goals: "1) to check arbitrary rulers; 2) to replace arbitrary rulers with just and rational ones; 3) to obtain a share for the underlying population in the making of rules" (Moore ).Western feudalism possessed certain characteristics which made it favourable to democratisation. Most important of these characteristics is the notion that the immunity of certain groups and persons form the power of the ruler. This is coupled with the right to resistance to an unjust authority. Along with the concept of engagement of contract being mutually and freely undertaken by free persons, derived from the feudal relation of vassalage, this combination of ideas is an important legacy from western feudal societies. G. Theda Skocpol It is Skocpol's requisite that the organizations which support a repressive state should be weakened before a revolution could succeed. Historically, revolutions have not been able to withstand state repression. It is often necessary to acquire military assistance from abroad to quell repressive actions from regimes. According to Skocpol, the "centralized, semibureaucratic administrative and military organizations of the old regimes disintegrated due to combinations of international pressures and disputes between the monarchs and landed commercial upper classes." III. Ataturk A. Nationalism After World War I, the Allies occupied and partitioned Anatolia for occupation. Mustafa Kemal rallied the Anatolian Turks to ask as an armed resistance force. The Turkish War of Independence was fought in 1919 and Kemal's forces were successful in driving the enemy out of Anatolia. After four years of fighting, Kemal signed the Treaty of Lausanne with the Allies on July 23, 1923. Turkey gained international recognition as an independent nation on October 13, 1923 and Ankara was declared as its capital. It was proclaimed a republic by the Turkish Grand Assembly on October 29, 1923 with Kemal who now adopted the name Ataturk, as its first president. Ataturk recognized that military victory was not sufficient to ensure the country's survival. He laid down the plans to modernize Turkey through major political, economic, cultural and social reforms. It was also Ataturk's goal to make universal contributions to peace and prosperity. His body of reform theories became known as Kemalism, and it carried six basic principles. The Kemalist revolution was intended to create an independent nation-state with the national resistance spirit serving as its basis. It was through nationalism that Ataturk was able to give his people a national identity. They were able to achieve a unified vision of national objectives and common interests. The Turkish concept of a nation was oneness of spirit moulded by a common history. The Turkish people were able to establish a national affinity with their historical past, harnessing them towards the realization of their hopes and expectations for the future. During the Turkish War of Independence, Kemal Ataturk took the remnants of the Fatherland and Liberty cells and formed them into the Association for the Defense Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia. This association served as the nucleus for the revolution that led to Turkish independence. After independence, Ataturk revived and successfully perpetuated the Tanzimat reforms which were instituted in the previous century. He also initiated new reform measures aimed at modernizing the country. These reforms effectively brought Turkey into the 20th century. Ataturk was successful in his reform measures not only because of his political adeptness and charisma, but because of the solid support and loyalty of the military. The founding of the Republican People's Party since the military occupied fifteen percent of the seats during the first Grand National Assembly on April 23, 1920. This meant that the military was the largest interest group represented during the assembly. In the next until the seventh assemblies, the military occupied twenty percent of seats in the Turkish Grand Assembly. This spanned a period of thirty years and in most instances, the military was the largest occupational contingent positioned at the top leadership level. These former military officers recognized that Ataturk's reforms were the answer to the economic, social and political problems being faced by a young Turkish Republic in the 1920s. In this experience, the military and the bureaucracy were both highly politicised and bureaucratised, which according to Trimberger is essential for the success of a revolution. The military also served as state administrators which was also cited by Trimberger. A principle of Kemalism was populism, wherein the people elected individuals who would govern the nation. Their duty is to safeguard Turkey's independence in both the national and international arenas. Turkish laws also guaranteed equal rights among citizens regardless of race, gender or creed. The state gives equal treatment to all Turks. Ataturk also introduced the basic principle of republicanism, applying democratic ideals which are political, intellectual and egalitarian. Ataturk also made a shift from the religious to secular society by using contemporary laws in administering the state. These laws are based on rational thoughts and scientific facts. The Turks were also encouraged to exercise freedom of thought, devoid of any attachments to any form of dogma. In effect, Ataturk was able to make smooth transition from a feudal state, to one of modernity, and eventually a program of westernisation. Although populist and democratic, Ataturk also enjoyed the participation of both government and military bureaucracies, which according to Trimbereger are essential to a successful revolution. IV. White Revolution A. Lack of nationalism In an effort to modernize Iran and institute much needed reforms, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi Shah announced his White Revolution in 1963. Among the programs instituted in his revolution were land reform, the nationalization of forest lands, privatisation of state-owned enterprises, profit-sharing for industrial workers, and greater access to education. There were also political reforms such as granting suffrage to women, increasing the legal marrying age of women to 18, and improving women's rights in divorce and child custody. These reforms were opposed by the clergy led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. An uprising started on June 5, 1963 against the Shah and his White Revolution. Several religious students lost their lives in a seminary in Qum. Khomeini was later exiled in 1964. The oil boom of the 1970s brought in much petrodollars as the Shah's government reopened diplomatic ties with Britain. Earnings from the petroleum industry were used to undertake major development programs. Development was at a fast pace and worsened the unequal distribution of wealth. This led to a variety of social problems. People also became discontented with policies of the national government and the National Front published an open letter asking the Shah and his government to comply with the 1906 constitution. In 1977, the Iranian Writers' Association hed a series of poetry reading called "Ten Nights", after which they took to the streets to protest demanding and end to censorship. Demonstrations were widespread by the winter of 1978 and the Shah fled Iran on January 16, 1979. Khomeini returned On February 1 of that same year. There was no national ideology which bound the population together towards common ideals and goals. 1. Isolation of the elite The elite were isolated since the reforms were instituted by government bureaucracy, but without participation from the elite. Land owners were disenfranchised with the widespread land reform measures. The military, a significant bureaucratic force required for the success of revolutions, was not involved in the planning and formulation of polices, nor their implementation. According to Huntington, land reform is among the reform measures that can bring about instability in a society. This is exactly what happened during the White Revolution, when the elite were compromised by the Shah's land redistribution measures. Thus, the Shah failed to gain the elite's support for his reform programs. According to Trimberger, It is necessary for both the military and the state to be highly bureaucratised for revolutions from above to happen. The military implements its course of action to realize conditions conducive to successful economic development which have been compromised or are lagging because of conservatism of the nation's leadership (Martin 1984). The Shah was not able to realize this and failed in harnessing the support and loyalty of the military in its reform initiatives. Using Skocpol's theory, the Shah's old regime "disintegrated due to combinations of international pressures and disputes between the monarchs and landed commercial upper classes." This was brought about by the disruptive effects of land reform and the unequal distribution of wealth. 2. Isolation of the poor Pareto's efficiency can help explain then isolation of the poor, because even though Iran's GNP skyrocketed during the White Revolution, the disparity between the rich and the poor also widened. The unequal distribution of wealth and the rising cost of living, especially in the cities, brought about a non-Pareto efficient situation during the White Revolution. The peasantry is generally dissatisfied with the elite of the cities and the policies of a central government. Reforms are used to appease the peasantry to keep them from disruptive activities. The Shah failed, as Huntington urged, to establish a political organization that deviates from the feudal and dynastic systems wherein political interests would be funnelled towards a political party framework. This would result in a "horizontal integration of communal groups and a vertical assimilation of social/economic classes." Political instability resulted since these political interests were not represented in the competition between political parties. 3. Forcing western ideals Western culture permeates and influences industry, technology, politics, law, economy, lifestyle, values, religion, and almost every niche and aspect of society. It was seen that the modernization initiative of the Shah would increase the influence of the West. This would thus threaten the Islamic traditions of the nation and its values and belief systems. This is the primary reason why the fundamentalists among the Iranian religious sector opposed the Shah's White Revolution. B. Role of religion -> failure to secularize state According to Weber, religion can be a source of social change and acts upon it as an independent variable. The Shah failed to make the transition from a religious to a secular society before instituting reforms. Although his aim was modernization, the population was not prepared to accept his reform measures, particularly those pertaining to women, because they were not given the opportunity to shift their attitudes and beliefs to one which would be more receptive to western ideas. Christian Smith's "disruptive religion" takes notice of the "religious assets for activism", many being cultural assets, such as those in Iran. Since religion is important in social protest, moral outrage served as the basis for "insurgent consciousness". The population were made receptive to mobilization with religion moulding their sensibilities such that their violation results in outrage. Religious networks also made people "subjectively engageable" to mobilization. 1. Isolation of Mullahs The Mullahs or religious leaders were also threatened by disenfranchisement. Having power and great influence in every aspect of Iranian life prior to the White Revolution, the Mullahs were also antagonized by the reforms and westernisation programs of the Shah. Their influence over society was threatened and there was no deliberate and orchestrated program to gradually shift legitimacy from religious leaders to secular authorities. 2. No adaptation of modernity to suit cultural differences The White Revolution was not able to establish the concept of modernity, since it was unable to ingrain in the people's consciousness that there is discontinuity between the past and the present. Iranian society bound by strong Islamic traditions, resisted the notion of modernity. The reforms instituted by the Shah was not seen as legitimate by majority of the people. It went against tradition which was also deeply rooted on religion and its dogmas. It violated time-tested practices which have sustained Iranian society for generations, such as the gender roles and cultural practices in relation to women. Revolution occurs in cases where political processes and economic development lag behind social changes, according to Huntington. In this case, reforms measures were fast paced but the political and economic processes which would affect positive change among the population were sadly left behind. V. Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution transformed the country from a pro-western constitutional monarchy to an Islamic republic. After the ouster of the Shah, the Ayatollah Khomeini came to power. There were many factions which helped overthrow the monarchy, including Marxists, liberals, secularists and anarchists. There were also a large number of religious factions which were eager to direct the future of the country. The economic, political, diplomatic and social aspects of government were in turmoil. The theologians were the first to give order to the country. Eventually, the Revolutionary Guards who ousted the Shah began administering local governments and had most of the local power. They also had jurisdiction over the judicial tribunals. Khomeini decreed that Iran's government should be 100% Islam and rejected the constitution that was drafted. Khomeini was chosen as Supreme Leader and had control over the military and the security services. He also had the power to veto candidates running for public office. The Iranian Revolution was successful because it unified the religious, cultural and political perceptions of the people. They were also driven by a common desire to revert to fundamentalist Islam and reject westernisation. The policies and laws of the republic are being complied with because both the government bureaucracy and the military elite have a unified position in viewing the undertaking of state polices and programs. In this case, the overriding influence is religion which permeates every niche and cranny of contemporary Iranian life. Its government functions based completely on Islam which strongly attests to the overwhelming power religion holds on the population and their leaders. There are no contenders, since the overwhelming power is held and imposed by the present government. References: Balaghi, Shiva. A Brief History of 20th-Century Iran. http://www.nyu.edu/greyart/exhibits/iran/briefhistory/body_index.html Cline, A. Modernized, Rationalized Bonds of Office - Rational, Legal and Professional Authority. About.Com. http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousauthority/a/types_4.htmiam=metaresults&terms=legal+medical+form Giddens, A., Duneier, M. and Appelbaum, R. (2003) Introduction to Sociology, Chapter 17: Religion In Modern Society. 4th Ed., W.W. Norton & Company. http://www.wwnorton.com/giddens4/chapters/chapter17/welcome.htm Hooker, R. (1996) Modernity. Modernity. General Glossary. http://www.wsu.edu/dee/GLOSSARY/MODERN.HTM Johnson, Maxwell. The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics. Document created: 6 February 01, Air University Review, January-February 1982 Martin, Brian (1984) Uprooting War., Chapter 9: The Military. (London: Freedom Press); this is the revised 1990 version. http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/90uw/uw09.html North, Douglas C. Structure and Change in Economic History. Http://ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Change/chmisc2.html Smith, Christian (1991). The Emergence of Liberation Theology : Radical Religion and Social Movement Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. The Columbia Encyclopaedia. 6th Ed. http://www.bartleby.com/65/na/natlism.html Tilly, Charles (1978) From Mobilization to Revolution. McGRaw-Hill College. Udis-Kessler, A. 2001. Marx and Weber On Religion. http://web.grinnell.edu/courses/soc/f01/soc295-02/marx_weber.html Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich. New York: Bedmister Press, 1968 Wilcoxen, Peter J. Pareto Efficiency. Last updated: January 15, 2004. http://wilcoxen.cp.maxwell.syr.edu/pages/225.htmlid=225&att= Wood, Richard I. 1995. Faith In Action: Religion, Race and the Future of Democracy. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkely. Read More