Symphony Orchestra Musicians and Organisations - Essay Example

Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Introduction 2 2 Symphony Orchestra as Organisation 3 2 Orchestras and Their Conductors 5 2.2 Symphony Orchestra Organisations 6 3 Organisational Structure of Symphony Orchestras 6 3.1 Symphony Orchestra Musicians 7 3.2 Orchestra Conductors 9 3.3 Leadership 10 4 Conclusion 11 5 References 13 1 Introduction In an age of globalisation and the unprecedented intensification of competition, management increasingly emerges as the dividing line between organisational success and failure. Management and organisational leadership, if effective and efficient, can render the most complex of business processes uncomplicated and, importantly, contributes to the development of a workplace environment characterised by accountability, cooperation between co-workers, rather than competition, and commitment to the organisation and its goals. Proceeding from the aforementioned, this research will take a novel approach to the exemplification of the importance of organisational leadership and management by taking a look at the management of a symphony orchestra. The selection of the mentioned example was influenced by the fact that management of the stated is a highly complex endeavour, requiring extremely high levels of teamwork so that the final product emerges, not as a series of disconnected units, or musical movements, but as a harmonious whole. The implication here is that the musicians/organisational members, must subsume themselves into the whole and, rather than perceive of themselves as individuals, see themselves as integral parts of the unit, complimenting and completing the whole. While there tends to be a dearth in the literature on symphony orchestra management, the few sources which were located for this research unanimously attested to the complexity of managing a symphony orchestra and held the conductor as an exemplification of the total quality manager (Morgan, 1980; Chong, 2000; Rentschler, 2002). Not only is he entirely responsible for the management of orchestra members, musicians, towards the execution of a perfectly timed and completely harmonious and faultless musical performance but his responsibilities include organisational visioning, strategic direction, audience development and fundraising. To be effective, the musical leader/conductor of the orchestra must possess a combination of skills, the most significant of which appear to be artistic and musical skills, organisational skills, and charismatic leadership (Morgan, 1980). Proceeding from the above stated, and as may have been deduced from the foregoing, this research will establish the extent to which effective leadership and efficient management are integral to success, looking at the case of symphony orchestras. 2 Symphony Orchestra as Organisation The operations and performances of the symphony orchestra have always been expensive. In earlier decades, when orchestras presented their unpaid bills at the end of a season, wealthy patrons wrote personal checks to cover the costs. As generations progressed, patronage was no longer a reliable source of financial security, and local corporations stepped up to help with the burden (Holland, 2003). Organisational power was placed into the hands of a Board of Directors culled from the elite patrons (Couch, 2005). As a cultural institution, the symphony orchestra is a collective organisation of diverse groups committed to preserving a vital part of cultural heritage. Through the collaboration and commitment of musicians, administrators, volunteers and patrons, the orchestral organisation protects the viability and strength of symphonic music. Nearly every role in the orchestral organisation demands a combination of high-level skills in music as well as the logistics of production and management. Behaviour in modem orchestras is deeply institutionalised, growing out of practices and traditions that began more than a century ago. With large infrastructures to support, little room for financial errors, and ambiguous leadership structures, orchestras may be reluctant to risk changes in programming, internal structure, or community relationships. For this reason, they tend to look alike, copying each other's programming and innovations, and measuring their success against that of their colleagues. Institutional isomorphism is clearly at work in the symphonic organisation as a constraining process that forces all units in a population to face the same tests of environmental conditions (DiMaggio, 2006). Indeed, no longer are arts organisations the place for the artist alone. Leadership has become the starting point for strategic maneuvers and reinventions in arts organisations. Strategic changes to arts organisation include a more forcible leadership, strategies that are not prone to isomorphism, the rise of flexible organisational structures, and more informal methods of communication and authority (Jeffri, 2001). In the symphony orchestra organisation, there is an artistic leader who is generally responsible for all creative and artistic decisions. No matter how much responsibility may be delegated to the organisational manager and staff, the artistic leader, here the conductor, remains the front person for the organisation. He serves as the organisation's "show horse and spiritual leader" (Jeffri, 2001, p. 27). The orchestral organisation usually employs an organisational leader who actually runs the enterprise, distinct from the artistic leader. The organisational manager is generally responsible for all non-artistic functions of the orchestra. Although he may enjoy equal status with the artistic manager, the organisational manager usually supports the artistic ideals of the institution rather than generating them. The organisational manager is concerned with long-term goals, with issues of how the budget affects the artists, and with helping to create the "womb in which the artist can work" (Jeffri, 2001, p. 31). Many orchestral organisations have adopted a dual leadership system, where an artistic manager and an organisational manager share responsibilities-the artistic manager held responsible, in the broadest sense, for the artistic policy of the organisation and for artistic direction; and the organisation manager, broadly described as the business person of the arts institution, responsible for all non-artistic matters, including operational and financial matters (Jeffri, 2001). 2.1 Orchestras and Their Conductors Leadership of a symphony orchestra is a complex and multifaceted skill that encompasses every aspect of the organisation. It is clearly not enough to be a musical genius, as the physical act of conducting can be easily learned (Bernstein, 1954). The intangible, spiritual side has to come from somewhere deep within the individual conductor. According to Lebrecht, what historically conductors have considered "outstanding" conductors are "an acute ear, the will to get their own way, physical and mental fitness, relentless ambition, a powerful intelligence and a natural sense of order which enables them to cut through thousands of scattered notes to the artistic core" (Lebrecht, 2005, p. 8). 2.2 Symphony Orchestra Organisations Symphony orchestras are as much about people as they are about music. As cultural institutions, symphony orchestras preserve and promote the musical heritage of past, present, and future composers. As performing arts organisations, symphony orchestras exist to serve audiences. As social organisations, they depend on the people who work in them and who support them through their attendance, philanthropy, and love of music. As business organisations, they contribute to the economy and standard of living in their communities. Indeed, as Holland (2003) points out, symphony orchestra organisations are discussed in the literature of many disciplines because they fall into so many categories of study. As complex organisations in the performing arts, orchestras have become a focus of interest, having been analyzed through the lenses of economists, public policy analysts, sociologists, psychologists, nonprofit management experts, musicians, and music lovers. 3 Organisational Structure of Symphony Orchestras The leadership models of symphony orchestras grow out of two contrasting traditions. The first, the "maestro model," evolved from an understanding of the pattern of European orchestra leadership that placed the conductor in an uncontested position at the top of the organisational pyramid. The second leadership model has been adapted from a corporate model and involves collective or shared responsibility. Termed a "three legged stool" by Fogel (2000), the model features the conductor, who guides the artistic course; the executive director, who exercises administrative control; and the board, led by the president, who has responsibility for the governance of the orchestra. According to this structure, the success of the orchestra hinges on the collective strength and vision of the three key leaders and on their ability to function well as a team (DiMaggio, 2006). The tri-partite organisational structure of orchestras requires leaders to bring to their tasks an understanding that some aspects of their roles are unique, while others are interrelated and mutually dependent (Castener, 2004). Orchestras define and even name these roles differently, depending on their size and resources, and their stage of organisational development. The "three-legged stool" structure has worked well for many orchestras, and continues work well for some. However, the increasing need for integrated decision making about such issues as repertoire, education, and concert programming is testing the traditional organisational structure, as well as the leaders who work within that structure. Where the orchestra leadership structure is working well, the leaders work as a seamless team whose members possess the specific skills and knowledge, trust, respect, and appreciation to be effective (Castener, 1997; Fogel, 2000). 3.1 Symphony Orchestra Musicians The conductor and orchestra constitute a kind of microcosm in which social tensions recur and can be concretely studied. The environment is comparable to a community or municipality that, as a sociological research subject, permits extrapolations about society (Adorno, 1976). The work experience of the orchestra musician is often complex and the ultimate goal of every musician is to give his best efforts to produce an inspired artistic performance with clarity and impact. Two articles, one by Breda and Kulesa (1999) and another by Parasuramm and Nachrnan (1987) focus on the life and work of orchestral musicians, providing potentially relevant insights into the complicated relationship between the performers and the conductor who is, above all, a musician himself. Why and how musicians pursue orchestral careers, what is required, and what occupational hazards exist are other topics of inquiry. Breda and Kulesa's (1999) study, Stress and Job Satisfaction Among Symphony Musicians, is intended to determine what musician and orchestral characteristics are associated with higher levels of stress and job satisfaction. The study revealed that increasing musicians' perceived voice in orchestral matters and improving perceptions of management and conductors increase job satisfaction and reduce perceived stress. Saroj Parasuramn and Sidney Nachman (1984) focus on commitment to the music profession in their study, Correlates of Organisational and Professional Commitment. The authors found that love of music and commitment to the music profession are not sufficient reasons to remain with a given orchestra. Rather, commitment to the organisation is a result of the musicians' orchestral job experiences. The authors offer suggestions about how orchestras might simultaneously reduce musician stress and increase commitment by focusing on, among other things, job attitude, job performance, and leadership dynamics. While relevant, this article would be invaluable if the issue of musician retention in orchestras were studied from the conductor's perspective. Robert Faulkner's Orchestra Interaction: Communication and Authority in an Artistic Organisation (1973) describes one of the classic sources of organisational conflict: the relationship between the conductor and his musicians. Faulkner studies orchestral performers as organisational members experiencing work problems with the conductor due to vaguely defined directions that are incompatible with performance standards and successful musical interpretation. The study views the orchestra as a system of social control in which the performers use interpretive schemes for evaluating their conductor. These interpretive schemes, create an organisational climate in which authority is legitimized through communication and shared meanings. 3.2 Orchestra Conductors Virtually every orchestra organisation understands that it is nearly impossible to succeed without a strong, committed conductor. The audience and community at large look to the conductor, not the board chair, and certainly not to the executive director, for charisma, talent, and other qualities to inspire devotion to the institution. With shared leadership as the norm in most orchestras, few expect the conductor to play the role of the all-powerful maestro who holds in his hands the fate of every orchestra member and the whole institution. The conductor has not generally maintained the broad scope of responsibility once held. Yet he continues to have enormous influence on the orchestra, especially regarding the artistic product. The conductor represents an interesting example of the performing artist who is both an onstage performer and the leading interpreter of the performance. There are several reasons for this slight diminution of power. Most union contracts do not grant the conductor the autocratic control commonly used as instrument of fear and authority. Also, in the professional life of a conductor, many of them hold positions in several cities, and often several countries, simultaneously. While individual power may be manifested through behaviors and personal attributes, the structure of an organisation also plays a significant role (Brass & Burkhardt, 1993). Understanding the unusual structure of orchestral organisations is important in grasping the role of the conductor within the organisation. While he is completely responsible for the artistic product, the conductor is expected to function as part of the management/leadership team of the organisation-two roles that are often in direct conflict. 3.3 Leadership While examples of charismatic leaders are well documented in both the press and popular journals, they have received little attention as a subject of serious study (Weiterer, 2001). Bennis and Nanus (2004) found that charismatic leaders were found to commonly several key traits. Recognizing their strengths and compensating for weaknesses represent the first step in achieving positive self-regard. The second element is the matching of skills with discipline to keep working and developing one's innate talents. A third aspect is the capacity to discern the fit between one's perceived skills and those required by the job at hand. Trust and consistency are also vital to effective and credible charismatic leadership. If trust is to be generated and instilled into followers, predictability must be present (Bennis & Nanus, 2004). The musicians must be able to predict the conductor's behaviour in order to trust his intentions and follow his directions. The conductor's positions must be clear. Bennis and Nanus (2004) also emphasize that leaders are more easily trusted when followers know where they stand in relation to the organisation and how the organisation, the orchestra fits within the larger environment. According to Weiterer (2001), two conditions are necessary for charismatic leadership to emerge. The organisation's members must perceive the organisation as a source of profound significance in their lives. The second condition is that the organisation offers its employees the means by which to attain that profound significance. The leader's vision for the organisation must be clear, attractive and attainable. Leaders inspire trust by creating visions that represent the context for shares beliefs in a common organisational purpose (Bennis & Nanus, 2004). Part of the conductor's role is to create a compelling artistic and organisational vision that inspires followers. Berlew's "Leadership and Organisational Excitement" (2005) proposes that charismatic leadership, is needed to create excitement in organisations. 4 Conclusion Proceeding from the foregoing critical analysis of the organisational structure, leadership and management of symphony orchestras, a number of conclusions can be forwarded. The first and most important of these is that, predicated on the assumption that the management of an orchestra towards faultless and perfectly harmonious performances, organisational leadership and management, if efficient and effective, can render the most complicated of the business processes relatively seamless. The second conclusion, which builds upon the foregoing, is that organisational success is inextricably linked to each member's knowing his responsibilities within, being accountable for his/her performance and, most importantly, acknowledging the value of cooperation, as opposed to inter-organisational competition. The success of an organisation, in other words, directly stems from its members' completing and complimenting, rather than competing with, one another, ultimately emerging as unified whole rather than disconnected units within what should be a single entity. The implication here is, therefore, that efficiency, effectiveness, accountability and cooperation are the predicators of organisational success. This is what we, as the research has illustrated, can learn from the example of symphony orchestras. 5 References Adorno, T. W. (1976). (E. B. Ashton, Trans.). Introduction to the sociology of music. New York: Seabury Press. Bennis, W. & Nanus, B. (2004). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row. Berlew, D. E. (2005). Leadership and organizational excitement. In D. A. Kolb, I. M. Rubin, & J. M. McIntyre (Eds.), Organizational psychology: Readings on human behaviour in organizations (pp. 410-423). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Bernstein, L. (1954). The joy of music. New York: Simon and Schuster. Brass, D. & Burkhardt, M. (1993). Potential power and power use: An investigation of structure and behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 441-470. Breda, J. & Kulesa, P. (1999). Stress and job satisfaction among symphony musicians. Symphony Orchestra Institute Research Study Series No. 3. Deerfield, IL: Symphony Orchestra Institute. Castener, X. (2003). The tension between artistic leaders and management in arts organizations: The case of the Barcelona symphony orchestra. In M. Fitzgibbon & A. Kelly (Eds.), From maestro to manager: Critical issues in arts and culture management. Dublin: Oak Tree Press. Chong, D. (2000). Re-readings in arts management. Journal of Arts Management, Law & Society, 29(4), 290-304. Couch, S. R. (2005). Patronage and organizational structure in symphony orchestras in London and New York. In J. Kamerman & R. Martorella (Eds.), Performers and performances: The Social organization of artistic work. New York: Praeger. DiMaggio, P. (2006). Nonprofit enterprise in the arts: Studies in mission and constraint. New York: Oxford University Press. Faulkner, R. R. (1973). 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Weiterer, S. J. (2001). The organization of charisma: Promoting, creating and idealizing self. Organization Studies, 22(1), 91-111. Read More