European Society and Thought - Essay Example

European Society and Thought Introduction: The basic fact of European history since 1750has been an unprecedented social upheaval. Every age is a time of change, and Europe had not been static in the previous centuries. But in the last two hundred years a new kind of society has been formed, as different from its predecessor as agricultural society was from the hunting culture with which man first began to fight for survival (Gilbert p 15). Beginning in the eighteenth century, demographic, economic and political forces arose that was truly revolutionary in their intensity. The population of the Continent began to expand rapidly and, in addition, grew exceptionally mobile. Europe became urbanized; for the first time in human history the majority of people lived in cities, and the countryside was partially urbanized as well, as a city economy and culture spread outward. The economy of Europe was transformed Production expanded greatly, and new methods of marketing and transport arose. Finally, governments gradually adopted new methods and policies, often spurred by pressures from below as new groups gained political consciousness. The result was an increasingly active government that sought change in many areas--in agricultural methods, in the organization of cities, in industry and technology, and in more conventional matters such as police and military structure. Population growth, the industrialization of the economy, and the modernization of the state--here were the most obvious motors for change. The result was a transformation that touched every aspect of life; and in many ways the less familiar changes were more important. People became sexier. They had intercourse more often, both in and out of marriage. Their bodies changed. Modern European man is taller, is heavier, and has bigger feet than his premodern counterpart. Women are taller as well, but ultimately their physical image, and with a bit of a lag their physical reality, stressed greater slenderness, along with an increase in bust size. Premodern society had a different notion of work from modern society. It had little specific sense of leisure; the notion of vacations and regular, off-the-job recreation was born in the nineteenth century. Any change as great as industrialization and modernization creates a great deal of stress (Hughes p12). At every stage of the modernization process large groups of people were fearful of change. Ironically, the same transformation that spread an idea of progress also enhanced a more traditional notion that somehow the past was better. An example: polls in France as late as the 1950s revealed that the majority of the population believed that people lived longer in the past than in modern society, apparently assuming that the stress of modern life, in contrast to the peaceful existence of the countryside, must have reduced longevity. Belief in political reform spread too many sectors of the bourgeoisie in France during the second half of the eighteenth century via Enlightenment tracts. Lawyers and other professional people were particularly receptive. By the 1790s a more radical reform interest, also Enlightenment-derived, reached artisans, whose leaders began talking in terms of social contracts and popular sovereignty. But even here the Enlightenment channelled political interests more than it caused them (Gottschalk p14). The state, particularly on the Continent, played a more direct role in modernization, though without intending to contribute to any fundamental transformation of society. From the late seventeenth century most European governments had been extending the scope of their operations. They tried to increase their contact with distant sections of their country, curtailing the regional power of aristocrats. Bureaucracies were expanded, and bourgeois elements were brought into some of them. Most important, the government began to deal with activities that had previously been left to the control of local and private groups. Many states codified laws on a national basis, establishing clear and presumably rational standards to replace local traditional rules. Governments felt active concern for the economic health of the nation. At the end of the seventeenth century, governments from France to Russia tried to introduce new industries and techniques. Several governments, such as the Prussian, encouraged better agricultural methods; they sponsored drainage projects and supported new products such as the potato. To promote commerce, several states provided clearer standards in currency and in weights and measures; Britain even established a semi-official national bank. Efforts were made to cut down local tolls and other barriers to a national market. Roads and canals were extended. There were even direct attempts to encourage population growth (Pollard, p18). Economic stability was a prerequisite of political stability. Europe in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries emerged into a more quiescent, more stable epoch (Childs p10). Over most of the continent, levels of fertility appear to have stagnated or fallen, an exception was Spain, where the birth rate rose as though in compensation for repeated epidemics. Scattered evidence exists of a new tendency to restrict family size by marrying later (between the sixteenth and the late seventeenth centuries the mean age of brides rose in Normandy from 21 to 24 years, in Amsterdam from about 24 to over 26 years, in Colyton from 27 to 29 years) (Roberts p25). The move to later marriage helped to stabilise population levels at a time when the dreaded bringer of mass mortality, plague, had been banished from northern Europe and would soon after 1721 disappear from the Mediterranean. Subsistence crises were also much fewer in the late century. There were natural disasters-1693 and 1709 in France, 1696 in Finland-but on a more regional scale (Cook etal p 15). Analysis Second World War: The Second World War began with Hitler's attack on Poland in 1939 and ended with the atomic bomb on Hiroshima in 1945. During these six years many battles were fought in both the European and Pacific theatre that led to the success of the Allies and to the collapse of the Axis Powers (Wegs p45). The cold war was, in the main, a war between the ideology of communism and that of capitalism where disputes had never actually resulted in armed conflicts (or at least not directly). Furthermore, we can argue that it was a psychological clash, by which the leaders of the major countries, UK, US and USSR held a principal role (Brunt p40). In the late 1980s and early 1990s, we were witness to a transformation of international politics more fundamental than any since the end of the Second World War. The collapse of European communism, the break-up of the Soviet Union, widespread programs of economic restructuring, and efforts to advance human rights and the rule of law throughout the world--these and other developments at first seemed to herald a new and brightly democratic era in global politics (Hobsbawm p30. Second World War and Change In European Society Since 1950, England had gone through many changes some of the changes influenced the national identity in the past years there was one way of life. But after the Second World War diversity in the way of life developed in the British society. After the Second World War the British classes vanished, and a new social identity came in to being. Changes came in identity and social movements began, which challenged the traditional politics. Identities became uncertain through the change of culture. In this section we will talk about class consumption, about the erosion of class identity finally we will discus identity and nation. Why that is there is uncertainly about British And multi -cultural England (R.J. Bullen etal p10). Social Movements In 1960 a new movement began to appear challenging traditional politics and making a new identity, (a key factor in politics mobilization).1960 also showed more collective efforts or attempts, to shape, and give voice to this new identity (Lewis p 22). The E.G. women movements and the black civil rights movement they all worked to strengthen the identity of their members. A few members of the upper class fought for their own identity, and were willing to die for it; these people were the main cause of the crisis in families. This changed the structure of family in England (Wegs p62). These movements gave the people an opportunity to think, who they are and what they can we become. The introduction of legislation regarding discrimination against women and changes brought about by World Wars II. Activist groups have undoubtedly played a major role in shaping the history of women. The suffragettes, established in the early 20th century, fought for the right to vote, showing women in a different light and bringing gender inequality to the attention of the public. Transformation to an Industrial Society The changes that appeared after the Second World War also affected the industries of England. The working classes were fighting for a better life, better income, and to have a role in politics (Hayes p10). What was happening in the British society can be explained by Mark's theory that, the working class has it's in the economic organization of production, a society with a strong working class , is known to follow principals of industrial capitalism and that is what the British society in that time period was based on . The ruling class after the Second World War had all the power and were the owners most of the almost al the wealth, of the society. Another class that emerged in the British society was the capital property owning class. They were called the bourgeoisies, and yet another class that emerged was the proletarians who ware the labour force (Dorpalen p10). In 1960, with the sudden increase of economy, it was said that the working class was adopting the middle class values and life styles. The British Empire had come to an end and the monarchy had gained popularity (Rietbergen p78). Britain joined the European Union. In the 1950 and 1960 there was economic growth for the labour class due to immigration (Unwin p12). In 1950, 21 % of married women turned towards paid employment. In the 1950s and 1960s, 90% of people were married, but this changed in 1999, half of those married were divorced. In 1950 innovation was at a rise and this had a great effect on society (Fox, p15). Industrial restructuring, which took place from1975 to 94, also caused dramatic changes in employment, for both men and women. This period saw the dramatic decline of manual jobs such as mining, steel production, and metal-based manufacturing held by skilled or semi-skilled while the service industry, comprising jobs traditionally carried out by women such as typing, data-entry and customer service, expanded, generating new jobs for women (Remond p45). Women's employment in the European society increased substantially, it is predominantly in part-time work, presumably as this fits in with a woman's family responsibilities. In the mid-20th century Part-time work was introduced to fulfil the labour shortage however labour became even shorter due to the industrial restructuring which contradicted the concept that employment is stable and full-time. The twilight shifts, which started in the evening, and allowed women to work for a few hours while their husbands looked after the children (Sutcliffe p17). As well as an advantage for women, permitting them to cope with other commitments, part-time work was beneficial to employers; it was low paid and low skilled as compared to fulltime work. Until the year 2000, part time labour was not allowed to equal benefits as those who worked on a full-time job .Women are seen to be peripheral workers, despite the growing number of women in employment. The "glass ceiling", where fewer women are present in the lighter parts of organizations, shows there is still much to be done (Sinfield p10). Conclusion It's clear, how the social structure and the social identity changed after the Second World War. In the 19th Century, European society went through a lot of changes became of industrialization. Manufacturing enthusiastically it urbanized and started to take over all the usual economic activities of European countries. As a result of this a lot of European communities economic production made them shift from small cottage industries to full size industries because of this foremost transformation from "agricultural societies" to contemporary "industrial societies", a great deal of the European populace shifted from small towns or wilds to better areas of industry. This was extremely important in the conception as well as expansion of chief cities. Through industrialization, large cities, as well as enormous populations in more crowded areas, the disparity among the working class as well as aristocracy had a perfect setting. Work cited Dorpalen, Andreas. Europe in the 20th century; a history. New York, Macmillan, 1968 p 10 Gilbert, Felix, The end of the European era: 1890 to the present. New York: Norton, 4th ed. 1991 p 15 Gottschalk, Louis Reichenthal, Europe and the modern world since 1870; special volume, Europe and the modern world. Chicago, Scott, Foresman; 1954 p 14 Hayes, Paul, Themes in modern European history, 1890-1945. 1942- . London; New York: Routledge, 1992 p 10 Hughes, H. Stuart (Henry Stuart), 1916- , and James Wilkinson. Contemporary Europe: a history. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 7th ed c1991. p 12 Pollard, Sidney. Peaceful conquest: the industrialization of Europe, 1760-1970. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1981 p 18 R.J. Bullen, H. Pogge von Strandmann, and A.B. Polonsky; Ideas into politics: aspects of European history, 1880 to 1950.. London: Croom Helm; Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble 1984 p 30 Wegs, J. Robert; Europe since 1945: a concise history. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977 p 45, 62 Childs, D; Great Britain since 1945: a political history, London: Routledge 1997 p 10 Roberts, J.M. (ed.); The Penguin History of Europe, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1996 p 25 Cook, M. and Davie, G; Britain Since 1945, London: Routledge, 1997 p 15 Brunt, B; Western Europe: a social and economic geography, London: Gill and Macmillan 1997 p 40 Hobsbawm, E; The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991, London: Michael Joseph 1994 p30. Lewis, P.G; Central Europe Since 1945, Harlow: Addison-Wesley Longman 1996 p22 Rietbergen, P; Europe: a cultural history, London: Routledge 1998 p 78 Unwin D.W; The Community of Europe: a history of European integration since 1945, Harlow: Addison-Wesley Longman.1991 p 12 Fox, E.W; The Emergence of the Modern European World, London: Blackwell 1991 p15 Remond, R; Religion and Society in Modern Europe, London: Blackwell 1991 p 45 Sutcliffe, A; An Economic and Social History of Western Europe Since 1945, Harlow: Addison-Wesley Longman.1996 p 17 Sinfield, A; Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain, London: Athlone Press. 1997 p 10 Read More