Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Research Designs - Essay Example

Research in Human Relations I. Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research Designs The simplest and most common definition of research is the gathering of information to use for finding a solution to a problem or to achieve a specific goal. The definition may be brief and the procedure may seem easy, but true research is far from being easy or simple. Let us look into the etymology of the word research. It was derived from the French word recherch which literally means to investigate thoroughly. Recherch came from the word recherchr which means to search closely and the root word cherchr means to search (Research). Let us now define research through its characteristics. Research begins with a problem or a question followed by the setting of goals and devising of a method or specific plan. The main problem is expounded by a hypothesis and assumptions regarding the cause or possible solutions are accepted as part of the research process. Research is not only about data gathering, but it is likewise concerned with the interpretation of data as a means to arrive at a solution to the problem or an answer to the main question (Andersen). There are four basic research design elements. These elements include treatments, measures, time and groups or individual. We shall focus on the time element for the purposes of this paper. Time is very important as it determines the degree and quality of observed changes. There are two classifications of research design under the time element: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is carried out at one instance, while a longitudinal study occurs over a period of time with a series of measurements (Trochim, 2006). A cross-sectional study includes observation of diverse groups of people of various age levels or a cross-section of a population. A longitudinal study involves observing and gathering information from the same group of people over a period of time. The focus of cross-sectional studies is on the differences between groups at a certain point in time, while the focus of longitudinal studies is on individual change over an extended period of time (A Research Typology, 2004). Since a cross-sectional study is done at only one instance, the expenses and time needed to gather data are very minimal. This is an advantage of the cross-sectional strategy. It is more convenient for both the participants and the researcher because there is only one period for data gathering (King, 2001). The participants need not go back for other sessions and researchers do not need to maintain contact with participants and sustain a budget for data collection over a long period of time. Another advantage is the large amount of diverse data that can be collected at one time. This data is very useful to the researcher in the immediate analysis and solution of a problem, and may also be very helpful to other researchers searching for similar data. A major disadvantage though of this strategy is its failure to measure the actual individual changes that will occur or may inevitably be experienced by the subjects. It is a static representation of the variables and causes and effects cannot be measure accurately. In attitudinal or perception studies more often used in Psychology, a cross-sectional study is not dependable because many factors may affect the disposition or attitude of a person at a given time. Personal problems or emotionally disturbance experienced by subjects very close to the data gathering session may affect their responses. The elimination of outside factors can be done through a longitudinal study where subjects are contacted at different periods where their experiences and personal dispositions are varied. The main advantage of a longitudinal study is its ability to determine actual changes and trends that happen over a vast interval of time because it documents information from each subject at specific age levels and records comparisons between subjects across different timelines. Patterns of changes and causes of events may be established. The data gathered is more sufficient for analysis than a cross-sectional data because it tracks down the internal changes within a person as experiences are gained and environments change. These internal changes may produce significant information as to the actual effects of variables on the growth or development of an individual. The duration of data gathering of the longitudinal strategy presents a disadvantage in that participant attrition becomes a major problem. There may be discrepancies in data gathered in the duration of the study because of missing information caused by the dropping out of subjects (Ruspini, 2000). This participant attrition may be due to refusal of the subject to participate in sessions or natural causes like death or sickness. The location is also important as participants may change residences over time. Researchers may choose to locate the participant and conduct the session or interview in the area of residence, but this causes other issues like deviation from the population description and additional expenses. Another disadvantage of a longitudinal study is the cost, time and effort involved. Researchers invest their time and effort in the lengthy process. They also invest money for transportation expenses, materials used and in the hiring of people to do data gathering. Because of the great deal of expenses involved and the length of time needed for subjects to commit, this kind of study often utilizes a small number of subjects which poses difficulty in applying the outcomes to the larger population (Van Wagner). A small group of respondents or subjects may not be representative of a population and may not reflect the actual trends or patterns exisitng in the society. II. A Study on the Attitudes of Employees Toward Their Immediate Superior: An Analysis of a Sample Study Using Both Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Research Designs General Question: What are the attitudes of employees toward their immediate superiors Main Objectives: 1. To determine the causes of both positive and negative attitudes toward superiors in the organization 2. To use the data gathered in developing employee relations strategies and programs Subjects/Respondents: Managerial and non-managerial staff Methodology: survey forms, one on one interviews and focus group discussions A. Cross-Sectional Study Outcomes The study will be done using representative employees of different ages, per department as participants in focus group discussions. Survey forms will be given to all employees including supervisors and managers (except top management). One on one interviews will be conducted by choosing two employees per department. One employee should be a new hire working less than a year in the company and one employee who has been with the company for five years or more. The outcome of the study may be a reflection of the present state of the company or the present sentiments of the employees and not necessarily an accurate account of the real views of the employees. The likelihood that the result of this one time study will represent a general view of how the employees perceive their relationships with their immediate superiors is low because of factors within and outside the company. Factors like pending issues with management, disagreements with superiors at the time the study was made, personal or work-related problems in dealing with co-workers, emotional problems at home or even physical distress due to work at the time of the study may greatly affect the responses of the employees. Favorable responses may be acquired if employees have just received financial remuneration at the time the interviews were done, if they have received commendations, or if their work load is light. The outcome may be useful for the purpose of having data on file, but for actual policy changes or development, a one time study is not sufficient and accurate. B. Longitudinal Study Outcomes The study will be done using a combination of employees with different tenures. Representative employees may be chosen from the new hires or those working for the company for less than a year and some will be chosen from those working with the company for three to five years and then another set from those who have been with the company for six to ten years. These employees will be the main respondents for the study which will be undertaken for a period of five years. The same procedures will be used. The outcome of the study may be a true reflection of how employees perceive their immediate superiors as the interviews and discussions will be carried out under different circumstances which will eliminate outside factors affecting people at specific times. The causes of the negative or positive attitudes of employees toward their immediate superiors may be established. The data gathered may then be used as basis for policy or strategy changes. A very significant disadvantage however is the moving away of employees due to either resignation or termination. This will greatly affect the study as changes in employees defeat the purpose of the maintenance of constant subjects. Results will not be accurate as different individuals have different views and perceptions. Another employee cannot just replace a previous respondent and add inputs to the previously given statements. References A Research Typology. (2004, Feb). Retrieved June 28, 2007, from Education Commission of the States: http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/appendixA.asp Andersen, G. (n.d.). What is Research Retrieved June 27, 2007, from Collaborative Research Network: http://kancrn.kckps.k12.ks.us/guide/research.html King, M. (2001, June 11). Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research Designs Issues in the Studies of Human Development. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from Graduate Research: http://www.graduateresearch.com/King.htm Research. (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2007, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research Ruspini, E. (2000). Longitudinal Research in the Social Sciences. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from Social Research Update: http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU28.html Trochim, W. (2006, Oct 20). Time in Research. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from Research Methods Knowledge Base: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/timedim.php Van Wagner, K. (n.d.). Research Methods in Developmental Psychology. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from About.Com: http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/devresearch.htm Read More