The Problem of Authority in the Continental Reformers - Assignment Example

As religion and politics were closely intertwined during the time of the Reformation, the efforts of the Reformers can be characterized as a kind of revolution. The remnants of this 'revolution' are pervasive - still evident especially in politics, culture, moral standards and work ethics of Western Civilization. Indeed, what began as a religious struggle, soon after generated considerable influence in society and politics. The Reformation, instituted by the brilliant theologians of their day such as Luther, Calvin and Zwingli, bore hints of revolutionary ideals which called for transformations not only within the church but also within political and social bounds. However, influence of these Reformers in the European politics and society began to wane after the Thirty Years' War as political motives and measures started to emerge - replacing religion as the dominant force in the life of Europe. Luther's detestations towards the power of the Catholic Church and the' legitimacy of the Pope's indulgences, for instance, were marked by the dictates of his belief in political realism which was coupled with the 'ethical consequences of his doctrines' (Davies 37. Scholars contend that Luther was an 'accomplished theologian politician' whose struggles were 'inner' and spiritual yet, he likewise took controversial political stands in order to defend his goals of religious reformation. This clearly depicts Luther's ambivalent position on religion and politics. Luther asserted that men needed the restrictions that laws provide and advocated absolute obedience to authority while upholding spiritual freedom (New 34). This contention on absolute obedience is dubious since Luther decried the same absolutism brought about by the 'indulgences' of the Pope. Furthermore, his overly passionate stance on the foreigners' exploitation of Germany evoked hostile resentment against the foreigners, as well as patriotism and indignation from the Germans (New 35). For many liberals and humanists in that period, Luther's type of reformation was fundamental - overly passionate and almost bordering on rebellion. John Calvin employed the same kind of radicalism in order to alter the political and social environments of his day. Fashioning social and political organizations completely from biblical principles, Calvin impressed on the people of Geneva, a very stringent moral system obtained from a literal reading of the Bible. These new impositions went through protestations as the people believed that they successfully dislodged the Papacy only to be disappointed by the experience of a similar form of papacy with Calvin at the helm. Calvin's innovative political philosophy and social reforms had brought about radical transformation in Europe. Zwingli, as compared Luther and Calvin who discussed various theologies in their writings and arguments, opted for a unified theme. Nevertheless, Zwingli tackled an analogous fundamental movement in the form of a very stringent Protestantism in which the Gospel was almost treated as a law (Bromiley 121). Zwingli's contribution to the social life of his generation cannot be discounted as his teachings became the foundation of social and organizational principles of the fundamentalist Protestants and the Puritans which later became the basis of the political and social structures of the English colonies in the United States. Zwingli's ideals were so pervasive that up until this day, the principles of social organization still persist. Hence, Zwingli's reformation movement can be characterized as rather revolutionary and political as observed in his preoccupation with both clerical and secular politics (Bromiley 128). The ecclesiastical influence of the Reformation started to wane, however, following the Thirty Years' War as countries in Europe veered towards geo-political strategies and more political measures either to win allies or to survive territorial conflicts, economic ills, disease and other problems which plagued Europe in that century. Although the Thirty Years War began as a mainly religious war, as it brought forward religious issues to the vanguard of politics in Europe, it took a more dramatic and secular turn as it advanced. (Darby 2). Furthermore, even at the war's commencement, Europe had already observed hints of political approach in order to defeat their opponents. John George of Saxony joined the Catholic Emperor in order to triumph over the Bohemian Protestant rebels and gave up some of their territory in exchange. Graham Darby contends that this was apparently a 'political decision' (2). As the climax of religious struggles during the war had been reached, leaders took political measures that were secular in nature. Principals such Ferdinand of Styria issued the Edict of Restitution in 1629 which alienated both the Catholics and the Protestants as this was a means of 'establishing Imperial absolutism' clearly a political stratagem (Darby 3). With the war's culmination, the deaths of the war's important leaders and the signing of the peace treaty - the Peace of Westphalia - European nations started to embrace the modern state system. At this time, states across Europe as well as religious groups had started to gain independence. In addition, Europeans had become wary of religious issues blaming them as the cause of conflicts. From this perception, the concept of toleration slowly surfaced and the subject of uniformity of religion became a less serious concern in the European state of affairs. As countries in Europe recognized a novel state structure, nations would usually fashion their policies in relation to the power of their neighboring states. This was the beginning of geo-political maneuvering of nations in Europe as state policies sought to expand territory at the 'expense of the weaker' (Wallbank 3) and to protect their own territories by forming alliances with their more powerful adversaries. Power negotiations across Europe had been initiated in the form of treaties and international conferences as a way to settle disputes and power struggles among competing nations. The war also left political implications with the weakening of once dominant nations such as Denmark, Spain and Austria while France emerged as the new master - with the French system of government becoming the new ideal of a successful monarchy. Most importantly, the Europeans, after the long war, longed for order and security. The Thirty Years' War affected the economy, devastated industries and hampered production. Moreover, the war cost the lives of more than 5 million people and an economic backlash in various parts of Europe. Hence, famine, disorder and crime became prevalent (Wallbank 4). In the end, the Thirty Years' War revealed the true facet of Reformation - that it was religious on the surface yet, secular in nature - culminating with a massive price: deaths, economic depression and the nations' loss of power and resources. Yet, the war also brought forth a new political order as the real issue: the power struggles and rivalry of European nations, the proclivity to expand territory and the destruction of the people's fixation towards religion. This transition towards secularization was already 'discernible' before the war - and in the end it effectively aided and accelerated the transformation that Europe needed to achieve balance of power. These were the changes that the Reformation aimed for but achieved, however, in a long and violent struggle - a stark contrast to the biblical and spiritual change that the reformers had preached. WORKS CITED Bromiley ,Geoffrey W. "Zwingli, Huldrych." Britannica Biographies (Jan. 2008): 1. MAS Ultra - School Edition. EBSCO. San Jose Library, San Jose, CA. 29 Sep. 2008 . Darby, Graham. "THE 30 YEARS' WAR." History Review (Sep. 2001): 3. MAS Ultra - School Edition. EBSCO. San Jose, CA. 25 Sep. 2008 Davies, Rupert E. The Problem of Authority in the Continental Reformers; A Study in Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. London: Epworth Press, 1946. New, John F. H. The Renaissance and Reformation; A Short History. New York: Wiley, 1969. Wallbank, "The Thirty Years' War." World History Center 34(2002) 1-5. 25 Sep 2008 Read More