Analyzing Coleridges Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Essay Example

Application of Terry Eagelton's Marist and Sociocultural Theory In Analyzing Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner Terry Eagleton's application of Marxism and its sociocultural approach has gradually evolved through the course of his career. Based on his studies, many texts reveal both heretofore invisible social influence and intent, while at the same time evealing clues as to the evolution of social theory several centuries following. For the purposes of this paper, Eagleton's observations will be applied to examininga specific poem by Samuel Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. While Eagelton has done a thorough investigation into the influence and intent of the Romantics, the challenge of applying these theories to a single text prove intriguing. Through application of his theory, this paper will endeavor to extract Marixst leanings from both within the lines of the poem and from the implied intent of the poet's subconscious. In the discussion of the aesthetic and its relation to poetry, Eagleton is forced to slip outside the covers of Marx and examine the background of human thought on the subject. Yet he manages to do this with a critical eye from a communal perspective. When discussing Heidegger, Eagleton addresses the notion of Dasein, that is, the essence of Being that resides in humanity that somehow manifests and transcends the mere existence of Being. This rhetoric essentially boils down that communication of the human experience comes through various media (which itself is both open to and in need of interpretation); the primary means through which this information is made accessible is through the process of language. Heidegger claims that because language is the means through which humanity communicates Being (especially that of feeling or experience), poetry is its most succinct expression, that "Poetry is the saying of the unconcealed ness of beings." (Ideology, 301). Heidegger presumes that the precision of poetry's brevity is the most direct link between the idea/symbol and the thing, and that it therefore is the closest means of unifying the two. He admits that poetry, much like language, can only exist through itself, yet in doing so it reveals the truth of being through the its manifestations. Thus the poet is only acting as a sort of spiritual medium for the greater state of human Being. Heidegger's aesthetics therefore except a degree of 'untruth' of poetry - in that it does not directly relate to reality but is rather epiphanies granted from the nature of this Being which exists outside of this world but can be tapped into by the very nature of mankind's use of language. Marx views language as "practical, real consciousness that exists for other men and only therefore does it exist for me; language arises from the need of intercourse with other men." (Marx, 7). If the former argument sounds obscure and detached from reality, that's because it is and Marx is adamantly opposed to such obtuse metaphysical rhetoric. Furthermore, Marxist opinion has affected all following analysis: post World War II critic Theodor Adorno offers the synopsis of Heidegger's theory of writing poetry as "One speaks from a depth which would be profaned if it were called content." (Ideology, 301). Adorno instead argues that a concept and a thing are two entirely different things, the concept of a thing is unique from the thing itself, as the use of language to describe the thing is based solely upon socially accepted and understood means of denoting the thing. As such, "poetry strives to phenomenalize language " (Ideology, 342) goal that ultimately defeats itself, since the more the language strives to emulate the thing, the more the description manifests as a distinct and separate entity. An example of this can be discovered through a very brief search as to the myriad descriptions available to any subject, be it Death, the seasons, a pet or so forth. Adorno thus hinges much of his argument upon style, or rather, the means with which an individual communicates a communal subject to the community. Granted aesthetics is a term frequently bandied about in regards to both literature and poetry, but how then does this relate to Marxist interpretation The answer is simple enough, for, as Eagleton observes, Marx is anti-metaphysics, yet is a profound moralist. That is, the exercise of creative skills make up the foundation of morality. It is therefore created by humans and not decreed by some higher power or abstract Muse there is no need to justify it. Marx's stance on industrial capitalist society is that it dehumanizes people into utilitarian cogs, their lives caught up in the mundane necessities of physical existence. In proposing an environment in which resources are shared by the greatest number of individuals, Marx has sought to allow people more time for themselves to develop their individual personalities to full potential. The time to develop individual personalities will lead to following individual pursuits, which will in turn result in individual products based upon more intellectual thought. The traditional definition of "aesthetic" relates to thought or production which serves no utilitarian reason; Marx's goals and ethics can therefore be qualified as "aesthetic". (Marx, 19-20). Yet a more thorough understanding of poetry, both in general and in Coleridge's case in particular, can be analyzed through a subject much closer to the heart of Marxism: the notion of culture. A large part of Marxist socialism hinges upon the idea of revolution, which does not necessarily involve the violent overthrow or the ruling class so much as the gradual replacement of one ruling class with through the gradual evolution of a sub-class. He has observed the replacement of the aristocracy with the bourgeoisie; he espouses the gradual rise of the proletariat into power, at which point a socialist society would ideally have no class distinction left. The evolution of poetry, however, has directly paralleled the notion of culture in that it became a means of bridging 'cultural' gaps between classes and between foreign communities, which came to be viewed as cultures in their own right. That is, where poetry has its roots in such oral community activities as song, saga or news spread through minstrelsy, "One can almost pinpoint the moment in English history when 'poetry' becomes redefined as the very opposite of the public.." (Idea, 40). Where religion had once been the grand unifier between classes, the process of Industrialization, through its inherent process of secular rationalization, had gradually weakened the binding powers of the spiritual. The notion of culture attempts to fill this growing void although it would be a mistake to underestimate the value of traditional social mores. Poetry and literature did not make this mistake, incorporating religion into their devices for reasons soon to be discussed, but also undertaking such subjects as ideologies and ethics - even politics - all of which resulted in such matters being removed from the common parlance (where they had previously served utilitarian purposes) and elevating their contemplation into lofty abstracts. Through the universality of abstraction, any subjects addressed are removed from the dangers of particulars (i.e. reference to specific events or people in reality). These lofty subjects became hallmarks of what is considered "High Culture", the pursuit of individuals, available only through individuals, and therefore the antithesis of generality or common reality. Yet T. S. Eliot has observed that high culture, being a minority culture, could only survive by permeating its own roots through the foundation of the majority culture. This explains his manipulation of Christian symbology, as religion " unites reflective awareness with spontaneous conduct, and this unity can be directly mapped on to a hierarchal social order." (Idea, 116-117).One might suspect that Eliot could have reached these conclusions only after study upon such poets as Coleridge and the Romantic movement itself. This then starts to touch on Eagleton's pinpointing of the removal of poetry from the masses. It also hinges upon the distinction between 'civilization' and 'culture'. The former is drawn from pre-industrial European bourgeoisie and implied a certain level of social genteelness. Both socially and individually, it related upon both a degree of social class interaction and the luxury of free time for its cultivation. Civilization, therefore, is compartmentalized upon local society and economic standing. The term also came to have imperialistic connotations to it as colonization began to spread across the globe, thereby distinguishing the civilized nations (industrial and refined) from the uncivilized (pre-industrial and presumed 'simpler' societies). Culture, on the other hand, is a term spawned from Romantic critique of the early industrial capitalist system. From a humanistic approach, it discerns value in societies regardless of their degree of 'civilization' and is holistic in its analytic approach and application. Culture, therefore, assumes both an organic growth of social development and an interconnection between different societies. Yet the perception of culture necessarily must be defined by that of a 'more civilized' culture, more advanced in thought, experience, and observation. This prejudice of superiority is evidenced by Coleridge himself in On the Constitution of Church and State, which he examines history through "the permanent distinction and the occasional contrast between cultivation and civilisation." (Idea, 11). Thus civilization itself can be regarded as an evolutionary process, simpler yesterday than today and a subject somewhat open to debate, both in it's approach and its founding premise. For the Romantics are not without their own contradictions and hypocrisies. In their day, the Romantics were considered to be extremely anti-establishment and anti-Progress, as they grieve the loss of simpler times and simpler faiths in the face of mechanical segregation of industrial life. The Romantics attempt to aestheticism morality, in part of a "spiritual compensation for this degradation." (Ideology, 65). The hypocrisy of this results from two points: 1) morality (through poetry) has been removed from the hands of the masses, who decided acceptability initially and 2) the definitions are being written by a very narrow strata of social class. Literature and poetry are only accessible to those who can afford the texts; the ability to hone one's writing is a luxury (and ability) available only to those precious few who are wealthy enough to pursue the interest and idle enough to have the time for it. Thus, the majority of poets, writers, novelists and critics are all being drawn from the upper bourgeoisie and lower ruling classes. This tiny minority is able to spread their opinions and influence only through cultivating the notion of high culture, making it a status symbol of civilization and thus a necessary requirement for social cultivation. This circle creates a market for itself during a climate of social snobbery by presenting itself as the intellectual elite, when in reality they are merely somewhat prolific, overly opinionated, and wealthy enough to publish their writings. The snobbery of 'civilization', combined with the Romantics obsession with organic holism, explains the evolution of 'culture' in Romantic symbolism. Not only are Romantics obsessed with analyzing 'simpler' cultures (especially when threatened by encroaching industrialism), but they frequently believed that the organic nature of culture "could furnish a critique for actual society." (Idea, 13). Therefore, through using the model of a simpler, more barbaric culture, the Romantics could critique their own society. Such 'exotic' localities as island communities or even local agrarian cultures could have the advanced opinions of high culture superimposed upon them; the parallels between these societies and modern civilization softened any harsh comment that is made about the latter. This approach has evolved to day into the scientific approach of anthropology, where the same distance required to study 'folk' sub-cultures can be applied to study 'primitive' cultures. In both the Romantic and anthropological approach, the method of observing requires a perspective from outside the community, be it real or imaginary, and in the process implies a study of ones own culture. In both cultural examinations, the implicit and the explicit, the perspective is a judgment from afar. This is the implicit reason for Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner being narrated through the Mariner, i.e. the viewpoint of the sailing community. Sailors, a sub-community well known to be both religious and superstitious, is an excellent choice for what appears on the surface to be a morality tale. Yet before analysis can be focused specifically on the text of the work, there is one more issue that need be addressed. "Religion is the opiate of the masses" is one of the most well known quotes by Karl Marx. As mentioned earlier, the narrow social strata of poets meant that for a long period preceding and following Coleridge, "the aesthetic (via poetry, literature, philosophy, etc.) in Britain is effectively captured by the political right." (Ideology, 60). The Romantics are named thusly not for their opposition of Progress - generally avoiding acknowledgement of it at all - but rather their romanticized nostalgia for a simpler way of life. This nostalgia, coming from an extremely conservative position, naturally romanticizes the religion of yesteryear, as it has slowly been eroded by Progress. And while the notion of 'culture' has benefited from this erosion of faith, the Romantics are quick to draw on the latent sympathy of the people for the old ways. Eagleton notes that "Religion forges a relation between one's most intimate experience and the most fundamental questions of existence" (Idea, 40), a universal approach that perfectly coincides with the Romantic agenda of abstract application to the masses. While modern theories prefer culture that conflicts and challenges the status-quo (as anticipated by Marxism), Romanticism seeks to opiate the masses in bedtime stories. The example encapsulating all of these contradictions being Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner Thus let the analysis begin with the traditional influences of the poem and it's underlying agenda before moving towards subsequent interpretations. To this end, a brief synopsis is in order: a wedding guest is en route to the ceremony of his relations when stopped by an ancient mariner and told a fantastic tale. The sailor relates of his passage to the Antarctic regions, an area covered in snow and ice and virtually devoid of life. When an albatross is spotted, the mariner shoots it down with his crossbow, at which point the ship is becalmed. The crew, superstitious of these events, strings the albatross about the guilty sailor's neck to indicate his responsibility. A skeletal ship appears, moving despite there being no wind, and pulls alongside the vessel. Upon the skeletal ship, two beings designated as Death and Life-In-Death are gambling with dice; Life-In-Death claims to have won and all of the mariner's fellow crewmen drop to the decks deceased. The mariner is left alive, completely alone but for sea-creatures he finds repulsive. Yet when he views them beneath Moonlight later that night, he finds them beautiful blessing them unconsciously, and the albatross drops away from his neck. The mariner sleeps peacefully, only to be awoken by a thickening gale. The dead crew begin to move and man the craft along with the mariner. The next day the mariner has a fit from the sunlight and in this state overhears two disembodied voices discussing him. They mention that the mariner has done penance for his sin but will have more to do; likewise they mention that the ship's motion will slow when he awakes from his state. The crew, which had amazed the mariner in the morning with an eerie sound, regard him with resentment upon his awakening. The boat eases into a harbor as the wind dies. The mariner finds that the crew's bodies are prone once more with seraph spirits standing over them, who wave before departing. The mariner is rescued from the ship by a Pilot, the Pilot's Boy, and the Hermit; the ship sinks upon the mariner leaving it. The mariner repents to the Hermit; the sailor's penance is to continue to relate his tale whenever the spirit moves him to do so. The poem ends with a moral lesson to love all creatures, as everything was created by God: the wedding guest is both sadder and wiser for having heard the tale. Through the frequent references to Christianity, it is only naturally to initially apply possible Christian interpretations to a number of Coleridge's symbols. For instance, it is interesting that the Wedding Guest is related to the Bridegroom (and will therefore soon be to the Bride) This immediately calls to mind the Catholic notion of the Trinity - note that the guest also had two companions. Similarly, the theme of marriage has often been referenced to the relation between the Church and Christ, the members of holy orders to the church, and various comparisons. However, since England by this point had been Protestant for quite a while, perhaps this was not a conscious intent of the poet - it is one thing to be regarded as reactionary against Progress and quite another to be viewed as a papal supporter. Perhaps Coleridge is instead making a vague reference to Blake's Marriage of Heaven and Hell, which through this interpretation, the Wedding Guest could represent the middle reality of humans, which contains both positive and negative elements from this union. Likewise, he could represent the necessary medium of the modern world torn between Progress and Tradition. He would also, as a representation of this world, be most in need of the supernatural instructions inherent within the tale of the Ancient Mariner. The actions of the Mariner in shooting the albatross directly violates the Commandment "Thou Shalt Not Kill" (generally understood with the modifier 'wastefully') but is elevated through Romantic holism to be a betrayal of all of Creation with the most direct ramifications for the crew. Hence, the comparison of the albatross placed around the Mariner's neck in lieu of a cross to designate sin instead of forgiveness. Yet through the blessing of the sea-creatures, the mariner is rewarded by the help of seraphim, who assist him in returning to land. The symbology of three is continued through the arrival of the Pilot and his Boy (who represent a means of bridging the seafaring community with those on land (similar to the connections created through Coleridge's use of Religion to connect High Culture with General Culture), while the Hermit represents the necessity of extremes in some religious cases (foreshadowing the Mariner's ongoing penance). Similarly, the use of supernatural characters such as Death and Life-In-Death and the two disembodied voices combined with all of the Christian elements, create a hybrid mix of civilization and barbarism that appeal to the Romantic sensibility. Coleridge's message of respecting all natural elements of Creation are a moral lesson illustrated through the mariner's interaction with animals, yet can also be stretched to imply a preservation of nature, animals, and indigenous cultures from the effects of Industrialization. Coleridge's poem is rooted in traditional and historic ties that have preceded it, much as literature in general does. Marxism operates along the same principle of analyzing previous thought and then manipulating it in such a way that it not only incorporates prevalent ideas and sentiments but anticipates future evolutions of thought both intentionally and subconsciously. While Marxism developed after the Romantic movement, it is easy to examine certain elements of Coleridge's poem to reveal latent sympathies which will ultimately pave the way for understanding of Socialism. These interpretive examples illustrate themes and ideas already prevalent in Europe and explain the receptiveness Marxist thought found there. Marx's notion of revolution is the gradual rise of a class to become the controlling class. From this perspective, the Bride and Bridegroom can easily represent the union of the ruling class and the bourgeoisie; the Wedding Guest, being related certainly benefits from the union, but it is not a day in his honor yet. To move towards that day, however, he must gain strength and wisdom from his fellow men such as the Ancient Mariner. Through the communication of language, the mariner is able to impart necessary wisdom to the Guest. And what was the Mariner's crime He moved against the best interests of the group: both the community of all living things in the taking of a life and against his fellow crewmen by not seeking their opinion on the matter of a community property. Through destroying the albatross, the mariner has betrayed his community. Marxist ethics are further portrayed in the return of the dead crew: despite having died, they return for the sole purpose of work for the greater good. In the short view, this insures the Mariner's immediate survival; in the long view, it insures that he will spread the repercussions of harm to a community through as large a community as possible. The Marxist interpretation of these sailor spirits can be applied to each of their key descriptions, for the second time they are described in detail, they gather to create a wondrous sound. This is particularly interesting when one considers the nature of a chorus: a group of voices producing a single product, capable of both blending in harmony and in accentuating each individual component. Lastly, and possibly most intriguing, is Coleridge's word choice when he describes the spirits beside the fallen corpses he calls each a "seraph-man." (VI, 81). He does not call them angels specifically - he does not simply describe them as seraphs or seraphim - instead he essentially calls them angel-men, perhaps in reference to their labour. The last telling argument of Coleridge's character development lies in the sailor rescue from the ship. The Pilot comes to save him, as it is simply his job and he feels a duty to his work; the Pilot's Boy, whether he be the Pilot's son or apprentice, comes along because he is learning the job from the Pilot, thereby ensuing that the duty will be fulfilled in the future. The Hermit, however, who has chosen to live in isolation for religious reasons, comes along for the mere sake of having mariners for company. While he has chosen to emulate a religious life, he is driven by an inner need to commune with his fellow man. The religious aspects of Coleridge's poem are actually some of the most interesting elements from a Marxist perspective, as the poet does not overly come down on the side of Christianity as an all saving necessity of life. Aside from occasional epithets such as "my God!" (VI, 61) or "Dear Lord in Heaven!" (VI, 97) and the occasional mention of prayer (most frequently an effort made in vain), Coleridge rarely mentions God as a being except in the lines near the end "For the dear God who loveth us, / He made and loveth all." (VII, 103). This grudging allowance, the one direct reference after a number of vague references Christ, the cross, and so forth, would indicate that the overbearing Christian symbols and borderline blasphemes were not the poets real intent at all. If anything, there are more possible interpretations from a Marxist "religion as opiate" than direct reverential quotes. The line "An orphan's curse would drag to hell / A spirit from most high" (IV, 34-35) begs the question "Orphaned from who" Is this an individual who has abandoned religion and therefore only has the community for support Is this the proletariat orphaned from the bourgeoisie and ruling class Similarly, regarding the sea-creatures, the Mariner describes himself as blessing them unaware. He blesses them himself, not in God's name nor asking God's blessing for them. This episode takes place by the light of the Moon, as opposed to the Sun, traditionally the Christian symbol of God and/or Christ. From the point of classical symbolism, this would seem to be the opposite of God's direct forgiveness. A similar instance occurs when the Pilot's Boy observes that the Devil (i.e. the Mariner) is familiar with rowing. The Mariner is about to embark upon a mission for the rest of his life, a mission of preaching the benefits of serving the community, and is basically called a Godless Communist before the reference exists! Coleridge does make some occasional allowances for Christian entities almost as a means of trying to reach the masses through their memories of strong religion. One case is when the crew first hail the albatross in God's name - which really identifies the group (and through them the poet) with a community that uses such greetings. Similarly, the comparison of the Sun rise to being "like God's own head" (II, 15) is a simile to an abstract. God's head presumably not having been seen by the observer (assuming that it exists), this is either a comparison of fancy or a comparison with some model drawn from a piece of artwork which would relate to both communal communication through artwork, the idea of leisure time to contemplate such matters, and the necessary question of who then had the luxury of spare time to put into such an aesthetic work The only direct action attributed to any Christian figure is the sleep sent by Mary and this is a presumption on the narrator's part, who has already seen a number of fantastic things while awake. It then is even more difficult to estimate the accuracy of his judgment when asleep. Instead, Coleridge reveals his sympathies to parallel Marxist stances in two different places in the final section, effectively book ending the line of God's love. The first of these reveals the Mariner's gradual awakening to reality, as he describes his experience at sea as, " so lonely 'twas, that God himself / Scarce seemed there to be." (VII, 86-87). The last is revealed in the final stanza of the poem, relating to the Wedding Guest: "He went like one that hath been stunned, / And is of sense forlorn: / A sadder and a wiser man, / He rose the morrow morn." The Guest is stunned from the Mariner's story and moral: to respect the harmony of community, both social and natural. "Forlorn" once again brings up the notion of abandonment, which should this be the case, should there be no higher power and only the surrounding community or creatures for support, it would surely explain how the Guest has become both sadder and wiser. Most importantly, he has become a part of the Mariner's community now, whatever else may abandon or support them, the two of them are now part of a community which will spread the moral of the story everywhere they go. Coleridge, without a doubt, has purpose crafted into the design of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Yet the obvious moral, "be kind to creatures great and small" is really but a small concession in what is in reality a rant against assumption of superiority. The fact that the poet has had to adapt these very methods into his observation are hypocritical, whether he intends that or not for to use the methods of the enemy is to become the enemy. He cannot appeal to the self appointed social elite without presenting himself as one; he cannot appeal to the religious background of the general population without using their frame of reference and therefore presenting himself as the same. In summation, the poem exudes so many elements of social subversion that it is only through confusing it as adhering to socially acceptable morals can it be digested into popular culture at all. Yet it has, and in doing so helps pave the way for more socially subversive (therefore liberating) creative works to follow, as well as the perspective for such critical theory as Marxism to not only take root, but to flourish. Works Cited Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Other Poems. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1992. Eagleton, Terry. The Idea of Culture. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, Ltd., 2000. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd., 1990. Eagleton, Terry. Marx. London: Phoenix, 1999. Read More